Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005

Origins of Israel and the 1948–1949 War

Arab–Israeli conflicts and peacemaking

Post-war Egypt

Post-war Iran

Lebanon: conflict, intervention and reconstruction

### The mandate after 1945

Britain had governed Palestine under a League of Nations mandate since the early 1920s. By 1945, British authorities were dealing with two national movements whose aims could not be reconciled. Zionists wanted a Jewish national home or state. Palestinian Arabs demanded independence under an Arab majority. British efforts to limit both Jewish immigration and land purchase pleased neither community.

The Holocaust made the plight of displaced European Jews urgent and increased international support for Jewish immigration to Palestine. The United States pressured Britain to admit more Jewish refugees. Arab leaders, however, feared that further immigration would bring dispossession and the creation of a Jewish state.

Britain also faced a growing security crisis. The Haganah was the principal Jewish defence organization, while the Irgun and Lehi carried out more radical attacks against British rule. The Irgun bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem in July 1946 showed how far British control had weakened. Searches, detention policies and immigration restrictions created more hostility without restoring order.

Arab political organization was weaker and more divided. The Arab Higher Committee opposed partition and Jewish statehood. Rival notable families, the legacy of British repression during the Arab Revolt of 1936–1939 and the exile of leaders such as Haj Amin al-Husseini all made coordinated action more difficult.

### The end of British rule

In February 1947, Britain referred Palestine to the United Nations. The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine recommended partition. UN General Assembly Resolution 181, approved on 29 November 1947, proposed separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international administration.

Jewish Agency leaders, including David Ben-Gurion, accepted partition as the legal basis for statehood, although they had reservations about the proposed borders. Palestinian Arab leaders and the surrounding Arab states rejected the plan. Arabs formed the majority of Palestine's population and saw the allocation of territory to a Jewish state as unjust.

The mandate then descended into civil war. During the spring of 1948, Jewish forces secured major routes and mixed towns. Plan Dalet strengthened their control over areas assigned to the Jewish state, as well as strategically important settlements beyond them. Palestinian society fragmented as civilians fled the fighting, feared attacks or were expelled. The killing of villagers at Deir Yassin in April 1948 increased panic. The loss of Haifa and Jaffa further weakened Palestinian resistance.

Britain withdrew without implementing partition. On 14 May 1948, Ben-Gurion proclaimed the state of Israel. The United States and the Soviet Union quickly recognized the new state.

### Causes and course of the 1948–1949 War

On 15 May, forces from Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq entered the former mandate. The war had several connected causes:

- rival Jewish and Palestinian Arab claims to the same territory;
- the failure of Britain to create an accepted constitutional settlement;
- rejection of UN partition by Arab leaders;
- the collapse of Palestinian Arab authority during the civil war;
- the determination of neighbouring Arab governments to prevent or restrict the new Jewish state;
- security concerns and competition for influence among the Arab states themselves.

On paper, the Arab coalition had greater numbers. It lacked a unified command and common objectives, though. King Abdullah of Transjordan focused on territory allocated to the proposed Arab state, especially the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The Arab Legion was the most effective Arab force; the other armies were less well prepared.

Israel had centralized command, mass mobilization, access to arms and short internal supply lines. After early Arab advances, truces gave Israeli forces time to reorganize. Later offensives secured the Galilee, the Negev and the road to Jerusalem. Separate armistice agreements with Egypt, Lebanon, Transjordan and Syria ended the fighting in 1949. These agreements created armistice lines rather than permanent borders.

### Effects of the war

Israel survived and held about 78 per cent of the former Palestine mandate west of the Jordan River, more than the UN partition proposal had allocated. Transjordan controlled and later annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Egypt administered the Gaza Strip. No Palestinian Arab state was established.

Roughly 700,000 Palestinians became refugees. Palestinians remember this displacement as the **Nakba**, or catastrophe. Israel prevented most refugees from returning, while abandoned land and property passed into Israeli control. A smaller number of Arabs remained inside Israel and became Israeli citizens, initially living under military administration.

Israel also absorbed large numbers of Jewish immigrants, including Holocaust survivors and Jews leaving Arab and Muslim-majority countries. The war consolidated Israel demographically and politically, while turning the Palestinian question into a lasting regional dispute.

For Arab states, defeat damaged governments and armies. Military officers and radical nationalists were encouraged to blame monarchies, foreign influence and political corruption. In Egypt, the perceived failures of 1948 helped prepare the ground for the Free Officers' seizure of power in 1952.

### Historical perspectives

Israeli and Palestinian interpretations of the war differ because they emphasize different experiences and consequences.

Historians also disagree about the refugee crisis. One interpretation stresses flight caused by combat, fear and the general collapse of Palestinian society. Another focuses on expulsions and Israeli military policies that prevented return. The evidence varies by place: some communities fled before fighting reached them, while others were directly removed.

Explanations of the Arab defeat focus on differences in command, preparation, political objectives and Palestinian organization.

### The Suez Crisis, 1956

Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal Company on 26 July 1956, after the United States and Britain withdrew their support for the Aswan High Dam. Britain and France feared losing influence and control over a major trade route. Israel was also facing Egyptian-backed Palestinian raids, the blockade of the Straits of Tiran and a growing Egyptian military presence.

Britain, France and Israel secretly coordinated their plans at Sèvres. Israel invaded Sinai on 29 October. Britain and France then issued an ultimatum before attacking Egypt, claiming that they were separating the combatants and protecting the canal.

Israeli forces quickly occupied Sinai, but the operation became a political defeat for Britain and France. The United States opposed the invasion and applied economic pressure, while the Soviet Union issued threats. The United Nations arranged a ceasefire and deployed an emergency force. The invading states withdrew during late 1956 and early 1957.

Nasser became a symbol of resistance to imperialism, even though Egypt had been defeated militarily. Israel gained temporary freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran and enjoyed greater security along its southern border for a period. The crisis revealed the decline of British and French power. It also increased the influence of the United States and Soviet Union in the region.

### The Six Day War, 1967

Tension grew through border clashes, Palestinian guerrilla attacks and Israeli reprisals. In May 1967 Nasser moved forces into Sinai, demanded the withdrawal of the UN emergency force and closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Egypt also entered defence arrangements with Syria and Jordan. Israel saw the concentration of hostile forces and the closure of the straits as serious threats.

On 5 June Israel launched a pre-emptive air attack that destroyed much of the Egyptian air force on the ground. Within six days, Israel had defeated Egypt, Jordan and Syria. It captured:

- the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt;
- the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan;
- the Golan Heights from Syria.

The war changed the conflict. Israel gained territorial depth, but it also came to rule a large Palestinian population. East Jerusalem was incorporated into Israel's municipal system, while Israeli settlements began to appear in occupied territory. The Arab defeat damaged Nasser's prestige and encouraged Palestinians to depend more heavily on their own organizations.

UN Security Council Resolution 242 called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in the conflict and respect for every state's right to live within secure and recognized boundaries. Disagreement over its wording and the sequence of actions allowed competing interpretations. Even so, it became the main diplomatic basis for later negotiations.

Historians disagree about whether the war was unavoidable. Some stress the danger Israeli leaders perceived after Egypt's military moves. Others argue that Arab governments had no coordinated plan to invade and that Israel chose war partly because it expected a rapid victory.

### The 1973 War

Egyptian president Anwar Sadat wanted to recover Sinai and break the diplomatic deadlock created by Israel's victory in 1967. Syria wanted the Golan Heights returned. On 6 October 1973, during Yom Kippur and Ramadan, Egyptian and Syrian forces launched a surprise attack.

Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal and breached Israeli defences, while Syrian forces advanced in the Golan Heights. Israel later recovered, pushed Syrian forces back and crossed to the western side of the canal. Superpower resupply to their respective allies raised fears of a wider confrontation. UN Security Council Resolution 338 called for a ceasefire and the implementation of Resolution 242.

The outcome was militarily mixed but politically significant. Israel kept the occupied territories, yet its reputation for invincibility had been damaged. Egypt's successful canal crossing restored national confidence and gave Sadat a stronger position from which to negotiate. The Arab oil embargo imposed during the war gave the conflict a global economic impact.

### Occupied territories and settlements

After 1967 Israel administered the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai and Golan Heights. Occupation meant military government, restrictions on political activity and control over land, water and movement. Israel argued that territorial control improved security and could provide bargaining power in peace negotiations. Settlement advocates also claimed historical or religious rights, particularly in the West Bank.

Many Palestinians saw occupation and settlement growth as permanent colonization rather than temporary security measures. Settlements fragmented Palestinian territory and made future borders harder to determine. Israel returned Sinai to Egypt under the later peace settlement, but retained the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and extensive settlements in the West Bank and Gaza through 2000.

### The Palestine Liberation Organization

The **Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)** was founded in 1964 as an umbrella body that claimed to represent the Palestinian people. After the 1967 defeat, guerrilla groups gained influence within it. Fatah, led by Yasser Arafat, became dominant, and Arafat became PLO chairman in 1969.

The PLO combined armed struggle with political organization and international diplomacy. Its presence in Jordan led to conflict with King Hussein's government during Black September in 1970. PLO forces then moved their main base to Lebanon, contributing to Lebanese instability. Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982 forced the PLO leadership to relocate to Tunis.

The PLO gradually turned towards diplomacy. In 1974 the Arab League recognized it as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. In 1988 it accepted a two-state framework based on relevant UN resolutions and recognized Israel's right to exist, which opened formal dialogue with the United States.

### The intifadas

An **intifada** is a Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation. The First Intifada began in Gaza in December 1987 and spread through the West Bank. It relied heavily on demonstrations, strikes, boycotts, refusal to cooperate with occupation authorities and local popular committees, although stone-throwing and violent attacks also took place. Israel responded with arrests, curfews and military force.

The uprising shifted attention away from the PLO's exiled leadership and towards Palestinians living under occupation. It created political and economic costs for Israel and helped build pressure for negotiations. Hamas, founded in 1987, challenged the PLO's secular nationalism with an Islamist programme.

The Second Intifada began in September 2000 after negotiations collapsed and Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. Anger over occupation, settlement expansion, failed diplomacy and Palestinian frustration had already built up, so the violence became much broader than a dispute over the visit itself. By the end of 2000, armed attacks and increasingly forceful Israeli responses had begun to replace the mainly popular mobilization associated with the earlier uprising.

### Attempts at peacemaking

The peace process moved forward when leaders accepted negotiations based on land, security and mutual recognition.

The 1978 Camp David Accords, negotiated by Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin with US president Jimmy Carter, created a framework for Egyptian–Israeli peace. The 1979 treaty led to Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Egypt became the first Arab state to recognize Israel, but the wider Palestinian provisions remained largely unfulfilled. Sadat's separate peace isolated Egypt in the Arab world and contributed to the hostility that preceded his assassination in 1981.

The 1991 Madrid Conference began direct negotiations between Israel, neighbouring Arab states and a joint Jordanian–Palestinian delegation. Secret talks then produced the 1993 Oslo Accords. Arafat and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin exchanged recognition, and limited Palestinian self-government was established in parts of Gaza and the West Bank through the Palestinian Authority. Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1994.

Oslo postponed the most difficult issues: Jerusalem, refugees, settlements, borders and final Palestinian statehood. Rabin's assassination by an Israeli extremist in 1995, Palestinian militant attacks, Israeli settlement expansion and mutual failures to implement agreements weakened trust.

At Camp David in July 2000, US president Bill Clinton brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Arafat together for final-status negotiations. They failed to agree on territory, Jerusalem, security arrangements or refugees. Interpretations differ over whether the failure was mainly caused by Palestinian rejection of the proposals or by their inadequacy. The failure did not alone cause the Second Intifada, but it showed how far the parties remained from a final settlement.

### From monarchy to military rule

After 1945, Egypt remained a monarchy under King Farouk, while Britain kept military influence around the Suez Canal. Corruption, inequality, British involvement and the Egyptian army's poor performance in the 1948–1949 War discredited the regime.

On 23 July 1952, the Free Officers, including Gamal Abdel Nasser and Muhammad Naguib, overthrew Farouk. The monarchy was abolished in 1953. Naguib initially served as president, but Nasser outmanoeuvred him. He became the dominant leader in 1954 and president in 1956. The revolution replaced parliamentary competition with a centralized military-led republic.

### Nasser: political development

Nasser ruled from 1954 until his death in 1970. The government abolished political parties and replaced them with state-sponsored organizations, culminating in the Arab Socialist Union. It restricted the press, imprisoned opponents and built a powerful security apparatus. After an alleged attempt to assassinate Nasser in 1954, the Muslim Brotherhood was suppressed.

Nasser drew legitimacy from Arab nationalism, social reform and opposition to imperialism. Nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956, followed by his political survival of the Suez Crisis, made him the region's most prominent Arab leader. The 1967 Six Day War badly damaged his position, but mass demonstrations encouraged him to withdraw his resignation. He then focused on rebuilding the armed forces and waging the War of Attrition against Israel.

### Nasser's economic and social policies

Nasser's government pursued state-directed development. Agrarian reforms beginning in 1952 limited large estates, redistributed some land and strengthened tenants' rights. From 1961 in particular, the state nationalized banks, insurance companies and major industries. It also expanded public-sector employment.

The Aswan High Dam was built with Soviet assistance after Western funding was withdrawn. It provided hydroelectric power, improved control of the Nile and supported irrigation. However, it also contributed to environmental problems, population displacement and heavy financial costs.

Social policy expanded education, health provision and access to state employment. University education became more accessible, and women gained the vote under the 1956 constitution. Rapid population growth, bureaucratic expansion and limited productivity still placed the system under strain. Land reform weakened the old landed elite, but it did not eliminate rural poverty or landlessness.

Economic historians disagree over Nasser's record. Supporters point to industrialization, broader education and increased opportunities for poorer Egyptians. Critics stress inefficiency, overcentralization, military spending and dependence on external assistance.

### Pan-Arabism and the United Arab Republic

**Pan-Arabism** sought political solidarity or unity among Arabic-speaking peoples on the basis of shared language, history and culture. Nasser connected this ideal with anti-imperialism and Egyptian leadership.

His influence grew through radio broadcasting, support for anti-colonial movements and resistance at Suez. In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed the **United Arab Republic (UAR)**. Syrian leaders wanted protection from domestic instability and communist influence, while Nasser saw the union as a major step towards Arab unity.

The union was highly centralized from Cairo. Egyptian officials dominated the administration, Syrian political parties were dissolved and Nasser's socialist policies disrupted Syrian commercial interests. A Syrian military coup ended the union in 1961, although Egypt continued to use the UAR name until 1971.

The UAR's collapse exposed the limits of Pan-Arabism. Arab states shared cultural ties, but their institutions, economies and ruling elites differed. The 1967 defeat further weakened Nasser's claim to regional leadership, although Arab nationalism remained influential.

### Sadat: political change and foreign realignment

Anwar Sadat succeeded Nasser in 1970. During the 1971 Corrective Revolution, he removed rivals within the leadership and consolidated personal authority. He kept an authoritarian presidency but allowed limited party activity from 1976. The ruling National Democratic Party dominated the political system.

Sadat shifted Egypt away from dependence on the Soviet Union and towards the United States. The 1973 War restored Egyptian confidence and helped prepare the way for disengagement agreements, the 1978 Camp David Accords and the 1979 Egyptian–Israeli peace treaty. Egypt recovered Sinai, but its separate peace caused temporary regional isolation.

Sadat initially used religious groups to counter Nasserists and leftists. He later restricted them as opposition increased. In September 1981, he ordered mass arrests of political and religious critics. Islamist army officers assassinated him on 6 October 1981.

### Sadat's economic and social policies

Sadat's **infitah**, or open-door policy, encouraged private investment, foreign capital and closer economic relations with Western and Arab states. It created opportunities for importers, contractors and professionals. Remittances from Egyptians working abroad also became important.

The benefits were uneven. Inflation, corruption and conspicuous wealth existed alongside persistent poverty and unemployment. Attempts to cut food subsidies in January 1977 caused widespread bread riots, so the government restored them. Economic opening changed Nasser's system, but it did not end state dependence or social inequality.

### Mubarak, 1981–2000

Hosni Mubarak became president after Sadat's assassination. He maintained peace with Israel, restored Egypt's relations with Arab states and preserved the US alliance. Egypt returned to the Arab League, whose headquarters moved back to Cairo in 1990.

At home, Mubarak ruled under emergency law. The National Democratic Party controlled parliament and elections, while the government restricted opposition, the press and civil society. Some political competition existed, but it did not threaten presidential power. Islamist violence intensified during the 1990s. The state responded with police action, military trials and repression.

Mubarak continued cautious economic liberalization. An agreement with the International Monetary Fund in 1991 encouraged privatization, reduced state controls and fiscal reform. These measures improved some economic indicators and attracted investment, but unemployment, poor public services and unequal access to wealth remained serious problems.

Across the three presidencies, there was more political continuity than their different rhetoric suggests. Nasser, Sadat and Mubarak all relied on a strong presidency, the armed forces, security institutions and a dominant state party. The main differences concerned ideology, economic direction and foreign alignment: Nasser favoured Arab socialism and the Soviet partnership, while Sadat and Mubarak moved towards market reform and the United States.

### Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi and western influence

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi had ruled since 1941, yet his personal authority was still limited in the years immediately after the Second World War. Iran's strategic position and oil reserves drew intense British, US and Soviet interest.

In 1951, prime minister Mohammad Mossadegh nationalized the British-controlled Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Britain responded with an oil embargo, while tensions grew between Mossadegh and the shah. A coup organized with assistance from British and US intelligence removed Mossadegh in August 1953 and restored the shah's authority.

The coup left a lasting resentment. Supporters of the shah argue that it prevented political collapse and communist expansion. Critics see it as the foreign destruction of Iran's constitutional government to protect Western oil and strategic interests.

After 1953, the shah grew increasingly autocratic. The United States supplied arms, economic assistance and political support, viewing Iran as an important Cold War ally. A new oil consortium returned production to foreign companies but gave Iran a larger share of the revenues. Western advisers, businesses and cultural influences became increasingly visible.

SAVAK, the security service, monitored opponents, imposed censorship and detained or tortured critics. In 1975, the shah replaced the existing parties with the single Rastakhiz Party. Rising oil income financed a rapid expansion of the armed forces, and Iran became a major US partner in the Gulf.

### Modernization and westernization

The shah pursued rapid modernization. Industrial growth, urban development, expanded education and military technology all received attention. Oil revenues, particularly after 1973, paid for infrastructure and ambitious state projects. A new urban middle class and industrial workforce emerged, while literacy and professional opportunities increased.

The changes also caused serious dislocation. Rural migration overwhelmed housing and public services in Tehran and other cities. Inflation and inequality rose, and reliance on oil made economic planning vulnerable to changes in revenue. Many Iranians linked elite consumption and foreign cultural influence with the loss of religious and national identity.

Modernization and westernization were not the same thing. Roads, schools and industry could win broad support, but the court and wealthy elite's imitation of Western lifestyles provoked opposition. The shah's close ties to the United States made domestic grievances seem connected to foreign domination.

### The White Revolution

The **White Revolution** was the shah's state-led reform programme, launched by referendum in 1963. It aimed to modernize Iran while preventing a more radical social revolution. Its measures included land reform, privatization of some state enterprises, profit-sharing for industrial workers, literacy and health initiatives, and expanded political rights for women.

Land reform weakened the major landlords and transferred land to many peasants. It also disrupted traditional rural relationships. Many holdings were too small to support a family, so landless labourers and struggling farmers moved to the cities, increasing unemployment and worsening poor urban living conditions.

The literacy and health corps brought services to rural areas. Women gained the vote and greater access to education and employment, while later family legislation improved some legal protections. Reformers welcomed these changes, but conservative clerics opposed both the reforms themselves and the shah's attempt to control religious and social life.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini emerged as a leading opponent. He condemned authoritarianism, foreign influence and measures he believed were contrary to Islam. Following protests in June 1963, he was arrested and later exiled in 1964. From exile, he continued circulating sermons and arguments against the monarchy.

### Origins of the 1979 Revolution

The revolution brought together groups with very different aims:

- Shi'a clerics opposed secularization and the reduction of their social authority;
- bazaar merchants resented state controls, foreign competition and interference in traditional institutions;
- liberals demanded constitutional government and civil rights;
- leftists attacked capitalism, inequality and US influence;
- workers and poorer urban migrants faced inflation, insecure employment and inadequate housing;
- middle-class professionals objected to corruption, censorship and the absence of political participation.

Oil wealth made the state stronger, but it also raised expectations and exposed inequality. Rapid spending after 1973 produced inflation and economic disruption. Later austerity added to unemployment. The shah's celebrations, court expenditure and claims of national greatness increasingly seemed remote from everyday life.

Limited political relaxation in 1977–1978 allowed criticism to spread. The death of Khomeini's son, a hostile newspaper article about Khomeini and the killing of demonstrators at Qom helped set off cycles of mourning protests. Demonstrations grew during 1978. The killing of protesters in Tehran on Black Friday, 8 September, weakened the possibility of compromise even further.

Strikes, especially in the oil industry, cut government revenue and showed that authority was collapsing. The shah moved between concessions and repression, losing the confidence of reformers and hardliners alike. He left Iran on 16 January 1979. Khomeini returned on 1 February, and the monarchy's remaining institutions collapsed later that month.

### Effects of the revolution

A referendum established an Islamic Republic in April 1979. The new constitution combined elected bodies with clerical supervision. The doctrine of *velayat-e faqih*, guardianship of the Islamic jurist, made Khomeini Supreme Leader and placed ultimate authority above the elected president and parliament.

The revolutionary coalition soon broke apart. Clerical leaders marginalized liberals, suppressed left-wing and monarchist opponents and established institutions such as the Revolutionary Guards. Revolutionary courts tried and executed former officials and political enemies.

The state introduced Islamic legal and social requirements, including compulsory veiling and restrictions on behaviour and expression. Women's position was complex. Some family-law protections were reversed and dress was regulated, yet women continued to participate in education, employment, elections and wartime mobilization.

Relations with the United States collapsed after militants seized the US embassy in Tehran in November 1979. They held its personnel hostage until January 1981. The crisis strengthened radicals, weakened moderates and reinforced the revolution's anti-American identity.

Economic disruption, capital flight and the departure of skilled professionals reduced production. At the same time, the republic expanded some rural health, education and welfare provision and presented itself as a defender of the poor and politically excluded.

### Post-revolution Iran and the Iran–Iraq War

Iraqi president Saddam Hussein invaded Iran in September 1980. Iraq wanted to exploit Iran's revolutionary disorder, disputed control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway and feared that Iran's revolution would appeal to Iraq's Shi'a population. Saddam also hoped to strengthen Iraq's regional position.

Iraq initially gained ground, but Iranian mobilization halted the offensive and recovered most lost territory by 1982. Iran continued the war after recovering most of its lost territory in 1982. The conflict became a war of attrition, with trench warfare, attacks on cities, disruption of Gulf shipping and Iraqi use of chemical weapons.

Iran accepted UN Security Council Resolution 598 in 1988, and a ceasefire began in August. Neither side won a decisive victory. The war caused enormous human and economic damage, militarized the Islamic Republic and strengthened the Revolutionary Guards. The regime used wartime sacrifice and the external threat to suppress dissent and consolidate revolutionary identity.

Khomeini died in 1989, and Ali Khamenei became Supreme Leader. The postwar government focused on reconstruction and economic pragmatism, but political control remained tight. Mohammad Khatami's election as president in 1997 reflected demands for legal reform, cultural openness and civil society. Conservative institutions limited these changes, showing the continuing tension between elected government and clerical authority by 2000.

### Historical perspectives

One interpretation sees the revolution mainly as a reaction against authoritarian modernization: economic and social change moved faster than political participation. Another places greater weight on Shi'a organization, Khomeini's leadership and religious opposition to westernization. A third emphasizes foreign influence and the legacy of 1953. The explanations overlap. Economic disruption widened opposition, repression brought otherwise incompatible groups together, and religious networks provided the organization and leadership that ultimately dominated the revolution.

### The Confessional state

A **Confessional state** divides political offices and representation among recognized religious communities. In Lebanon, this arrangement was meant to stop any one community from monopolizing power. At the same time, it made religious identity central to political competition.

The unwritten National Pact of 1943 gave the presidency to a Maronite Christian, the premiership to a Sunni Muslim and the speakership of parliament to a Shi'a Muslim. Parliamentary representation favoured Christians by a ratio of six to five, based on the disputed 1932 census. Maronite leaders accepted Lebanon's Arab identity. Muslim leaders, in return, accepted an independent Lebanon rather than union with Syria.

At first, the system offered flexibility and helped preserve Lebanon's independence. Demographic and social change gradually made the allocation more controversial. Many Muslims felt that Christian political predominance no longer matched the population, while Maronite leaders feared that reform would endanger Lebanon's sovereignty and Christian security.

### Economic, religious and social tensions

Beirut grew into a regional centre for banking, trade, tourism and publishing. Commercial and financial elites benefited from economic growth, but wealth was distributed unevenly. Beirut and Mount Lebanon received more investment than poorer rural regions, especially the mainly Shi'a south and Beqaa Valley.

Religious identity overlapped with class and regional inequality, although it did not determine them completely. Many Shi'a communities faced poverty and limited state services. Sunni political influence centred on urban notable families, while poorer Christians did not necessarily share the prosperity of Maronite elites.

The state remained weak. Instead of relying on strong national institutions, political leaders depended on family, regional and sectarian patronage. Leaders deliberately kept the army limited because they feared that a powerful force could upset the confessional balance.

Regional politics deepened domestic divisions. Maronite nationalists generally favoured a distinct Lebanese identity and Western connections. Many Sunni Muslims supported Arab nationalism and closer links with other Arab states. The Arab–Israeli conflict then brought armed Palestinian organizations into this unstable structure.

### The 1958 civil conflict and outside intervention

President Camille Chamoun's pro-Western policies, together with suspicions that he wanted another term, provoked opposition. Nasser's popularity and the formation of the United Arab Republic encouraged Lebanese Arab nationalists. Chamoun, meanwhile, accepted the Eisenhower Doctrine and feared regional revolutionary movements.

Armed conflict broke out in 1958 between government supporters and a coalition of Muslim and leftist opponents. After a revolution overthrew Iraq's pro-Western monarchy, Chamoun requested US assistance. US Marines landed near Beirut in July 1958.

The intervention deterred external pressure but did not impose a purely military solution. General Fuad Chehab became a compromise president. He expanded state administration and tried to reduce social inequality while preserving the confessional system. The crisis showed both the resilience of political compromise and Lebanon's vulnerability to regional and international intervention.

### Growth of the PLO and militias

Palestinian refugees entered Lebanon after the 1948–1949 War. When the PLO was expelled from Jordan in 1970–1971, southern Lebanon and refugee camps near Beirut became major bases for Palestinian armed groups.

The 1969 Cairo Agreement allowed Palestinian armed activity from parts of Lebanon while recognizing Lebanese sovereignty in principle. In practice, the PLO gained considerable autonomy. Cross-border attacks led to Israeli reprisals, while Lebanese groups disagreed over whether the Palestinian armed presence supported the Arab cause or weakened the state.

Lebanese parties created militias because they distrusted both the state and one another. Important forces included the mainly Maronite Kataeb or Phalange militia, the Lebanese National Movement led by Kamal Jumblatt, the Shi'a Amal movement founded by Musa al-Sadr, and multiple Palestinian organizations. During the 1980s, Hezbollah emerged with Iranian support in response to Israeli occupation and Shi'a political mobilization.

Militias did more than protect their communities. They controlled neighbourhoods, ports, checkpoints and sources of taxation. Foreign arms and money strengthened them, while violence and displacement pushed communities into greater geographical separation.

### The civil war, 1975–1990

The war began in April 1975 after attacks involving Phalangists and Palestinians. Its underlying causes included the rigid confessional system, unequal development, demands for political reform, the armed PLO presence and disagreement over Lebanon's place in the Arab–Israeli conflict.

At first, the fighting broadly pitted the Lebanese National Movement and Palestinian allies against Christian militias. Alliances then shifted repeatedly. The Lebanese army fragmented along sectarian lines. Killings, kidnappings and massacres led to retaliatory violence and mass displacement.

Syria intervened militarily in 1976. President Hafez al-Assad wanted to prevent Lebanon's collapse or partition, control Palestinian activity and secure Syrian influence. Syrian forces initially acted against the Palestinian-leftist coalition, although Syrian alliances later changed.

Israel supported Christian militias in the south and invaded Lebanon in 1978. In June 1982, it launched a much larger invasion intended to remove the PLO from its northern border. Israeli forces reached Beirut, and the PLO leadership evacuated to Tunis. The assassination of president-elect Bashir Gemayel was followed by the massacre of Palestinian civilians in the Sabra and Shatila camps by Lebanese Christian militiamen while Israeli forces controlled the surrounding area.

A multinational force involving the United States, France and other states entered Beirut. Bombings of the US embassy and US and French military barracks in 1983 showed the dangers of intervention. Western forces withdrew in 1984.

Israel gradually withdrew to a self-declared security zone in southern Lebanon, working with the South Lebanon Army. Resistance to occupation strengthened Hezbollah, which received Iranian training and support through Syria. By the later 1980s, the conflict involved rival Christian forces, Amal, Hezbollah, Palestinian groups and Syrian troops, as well as the weakened central government.

The war cannot be explained simply as an ancient religious conflict. Confessional divisions shaped mobilization, but political inequality, Palestinian armed autonomy, foreign intervention and competition among militia leaders repeatedly prolonged the fighting.

### The Taif settlement and reconstruction

The 1989 Taif Agreement provided the basis for ending the war. It retained confessional government but changed the system by establishing equal Christian and Muslim representation in parliament. It also transferred some presidential powers to the Sunni prime minister and cabinet. The agreement called for the eventual abolition of political confessionalism without setting an immediate route for achieving it.

General Michel Aoun rejected Syrian dominance and fought both Syrian forces and rival Christian militia leaders. Syrian forces removed him from power in October 1990, conventionally marking the end of the civil war. Most militias were disarmed, but Hezbollah kept its weapons on the grounds that it was resisting Israeli occupation.

Reconstruction during the 1990s was closely associated with prime minister Rafiq Hariri. Beirut's commercial centre, roads and communications were rebuilt, with the private company Solidere playing a major role. The government sought to restore Lebanon's position as a regional centre for finance and services.

The rebuilding produced visible physical recovery, but it depended heavily on borrowing and favoured Beirut and property development. Critics argued that it increased public debt, displaced some former residents and failed to address regional poverty or the patronage system. Former militia leaders entered parliamentary politics, so the end of fighting did not remove the networks that had sustained the conflict.

### Lebanon by 2000

Syria remained the dominant outside power in post-war Lebanon. It kept troops in the country and exercised strong influence over political appointments and foreign policy. Supporters described this presence as necessary for stability; opponents saw it as an occupation that restricted Lebanese sovereignty.

Israel withdrew from southern Lebanon in May 2000, apart from the disputed Shebaa Farms area. Hezbollah claimed that armed resistance had forced the withdrawal, which greatly increased its prestige. Lebanon had restored a functioning central government and rebuilt much of its infrastructure, but confessional politics, economic inequality, foreign influence and Hezbollah's independent military power remained unresolved.

Social and cultural developments in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries

History

IB History develops students' understanding of significant historical events, themes, and interpretations across different periods and regions.Students learn to analyze historical sources critically, understand complex historical narratives, and develop sophisticated historical thinking skills.

HL1.17 Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945–2000)

Question 1

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