The Fatimids (909–1171)

Causes of conflict and military intervention

Consequences of conflict and military rule

Social and economic challenges

Establishment of single-party states

Return to multi-party democracy

Economic growth and development to 2005

This topic is studied through two contrasting cases: **Nigeria** and **Tanzania**. Nigeria endured repeated coups, military rule and the Nigerian Civil War. Tanzania developed a relatively stable civilian state, although the Zanzibar Revolution, the 1964 army mutiny and tensions within the union show that this stability was never automatic or complete.

### Nigeria: ethnic and regional tensions

When Nigeria became independent in 1960, it brought together regions with different political and economic interests. The Northern Region was politically dominated by the Hausa–Fulani and the Northern People’s Congress. The Western Region was linked mainly to the Yoruba and the Action Group, while the Eastern Region was dominated by the Igbo and the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. These political alignments did not form simple or uniform ethnic blocs. Even so, competition for federal power took on a strongly regional character.

Disputed censuses and the contested federal election of 1964 weakened public confidence in civilian government. Violence during the Western Region election of 1965 added to the impression that constitutional politics could not resolve struggles over office and resources.

### Coups and the Nigerian Civil War

Junior officers carried out Nigeria’s first coup in January 1966. The organizers described it as an attack on corruption and political failure. However, the deaths of prominent northern leaders, combined with the survival of the Igbo army commander Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, led many people to see it as an Igbo seizure of power. Ironsi’s attempt to replace the federation with a more unitary structure then intensified northern fears.

A counter-coup in July 1966 brought Lieutenant-Colonel Yakubu Gowon to power. Mass violence against Igbo people in northern Nigeria forced many survivors to flee to the Eastern Region. Negotiations broke down, and the Eastern military governor Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu declared the independent Republic of Biafra on 30 May 1967. The federal government rejected the secession, and the Nigerian Civil War of 1967–70 began.

The crisis developed from several connected causes:

- **Ethnic and regional tensions:** fear of domination, retaliatory violence and disputes over the federal balance.
- **Economic problems:** rivalry over federal revenue and the oil-producing areas of the east.
- **Inefficient civilian government:** disputed elections, corruption and political violence damaged the legitimacy of the First Republic.
- **Ideology:** federal unity confronted Biafran claims to self-determination and protection from persecution.
- **Personal ambition:** officers and regional leaders competed for authority, although ambition alone cannot explain the depth of the crisis.
- **Outside forces:** Britain and the Soviet Union supplied the federal side, while France and some African states assisted or recognized Biafra. Foreign involvement prolonged each side’s capacity to fight, but it did not create the original conflict.

Later military interventions followed much the same pattern. The coups of 1975, 1983 and 1985 were justified by accusations of corruption, economic mismanagement or failed government. Military rulers also displaced one another, however, because senior officers wanted control of the state.

### Tanzania: conflict contained

Tanganyika became independent in 1961 under Julius Nyerere. In January 1964, Zanzibar’s revolution overthrew Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah and the Arab-dominated government. The revolution grew out of political exclusion, racial and class divisions, and the disputed result of the 1963 election. Abeid Karume became president of Zanzibar. On 26 April 1964, Zanzibar united with Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The name Tanzania was adopted later in 1964.

A Tanganyikan army mutiny in January 1964 revealed the weakness of post-colonial military institutions. Soldiers resented their pay, promotion prospects and the continued presence of British officers. British troops helped suppress the mutiny. Nyerere then rebuilt the armed forces around political loyalty and national service. Unlike in Nigeria, the army did not emerge as an independent claimant to state power.

Nyerere’s promotion of Swahili and a national identity that crossed ethnic boundaries helped support Tanzania’s stability. A dominant nationalist party also limited open regional competition. Critics argue that this unity was achieved partly by restricting opposition. Supporters, by contrast, stress that nation-building prevented the ethnic capture of the army and state seen elsewhere.

### Nigeria: consequences of civil war

Federal forces defeated Biafra in January 1970. Nigeria remained territorially united, but the war brought extensive civilian death, displacement, hunger and destruction, particularly in the former Eastern Region. The blockade of Biafra turned famine into both an instrument and a consequence of warfare.

Gowon announced a policy of reconciliation based on the formula “no victor, no vanquished”. The federal government avoided mass judicial punishment and tried to rebuild the country. Former Biafrans still faced lasting disadvantages, however. The war also strengthened federal authority. The regions were divided into states, oil revenue became more centralized, and the armed forces took on a permanent role in national politics.

The war brought both change and continuity. Secession had been defeated and federal institutions were stronger, yet disputes over regional access to state resources remained. Creating additional states weakened the larger regional blocs, while also creating new competition for federal allocations.

### Nigeria: impact of military rule

Military governments ruled Nigeria for most of the period from 1966 to 1999. Their impact varied, but several broad patterns emerged:

- Federal military rule weakened elected institutions and made government by decree seem normal.
- Repeated coups meant that political succession depended on the armed forces rather than voters.
- Expanding the number of states and local governments reduced the power of the former regions, but increased dependence on federal revenue.
- Oil income paid for infrastructure and an expanded state. It also encouraged corruption, patronage and struggles over control of revenue.
- Under General Sani Abacha, 1993–98, repression intensified. Opposition figures were detained, political activity was restricted, and Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogoni activists were executed in 1995.
- Military-led transitions repeatedly failed, most notably when Ibrahim Babangida annulled the 12 June 1993 presidential election.

Some interpretations stress the army’s role in preserving Nigerian unity and creating a more centralized federation. Others argue that military government damaged accountability and turned the armed forces into another competitor for wealth and office. Both views can be held at once. The centralized authority that helped defeat secession also made authoritarian rule easier.

### Tanzania: effects of political and military conflict

The 1964 union reduced the danger that instability in Zanzibar would draw in rival Cold War powers or spread to the mainland. It created a new state, while Zanzibar kept its own president, legislature and considerable internal autonomy. Disputes over the balance between union and Zanzibari powers therefore continued.

Tanzania’s military intervened against Idi Amin’s Uganda after Ugandan forces invaded the Kagera region in 1978. Tanzanian troops helped remove Amin in 1979. The campaign improved Tanzania’s regional standing, but it placed heavy financial demands on an already weak economy.

The contrast with Nigeria is significant. Tanzania experienced coercion and military action, yet civilian leaders kept control of the armed forces. Political stability supported national continuity, but it also came with one-party restrictions and periodic repression of opposition in Zanzibar. Stability should not be treated as the same thing as full political freedom.

**Neo-colonial economic exploitation** describes continued external influence over an independent country’s economy through trade, investment, debt or control of major industries. Formal sovereignty did not necessarily give an African government full control over its development.

### Nigeria: oil wealth and persistent deprivation

At independence, Nigeria faced severe regional inequalities in education, health care and infrastructure. Widespread illiteracy, poverty and limited access to medical services did not disappear quickly. Rapid urbanization added pressure to housing, sanitation and employment.

During the 1970s, oil became the main source of federal revenue. It paid for roads, public employment and ambitious development projects. However, relying on one export left Nigeria vulnerable to changes in world prices. Agriculture received less attention, and poorly planned, economically questionable projects weakened the social impact of government spending.

The economic decline of the 1980s led to debt, inflation, unemployment and falling public services. In 1986, Ibrahim Babangida introduced a structural adjustment programme. Currency devaluation, privatization and reduced state expenditure aimed to make the economy more competitive. These reforms followed the collapse of oil income. They were associated with rising living costs, weaker social provision and greater involvement by international financial institutions.

Poverty remained closely linked to disease. Weak sanitation and uneven access to clinics increased vulnerability to preventable illness. By the end of the century, HIV/AIDS had become a major challenge. Education expanded after independence, but access and quality differed sharply between regions, as well as between urban and rural communities.

The oil-producing Niger Delta showed how unevenly development was distributed. Local communities faced pollution and lost livelihoods, while the federal government controlled most oil revenue. Multinational companies operated the oil industry and received contractual payments. Protests by the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People revealed the links between environmental damage, poverty, state repression and neo-colonial criticism.

### Tanzania: ujamaa and basic social provision

Nyerere’s 1967 Arusha Declaration committed Tanzania to **ujamaa**, an African socialist programme built around equality, collective rural development and public ownership of major economic institutions. The government nationalized banks and large businesses, then later moved rural communities into planned villages.

The policy sent resources towards literacy, primary education and basic health care. Swahili-language education and adult literacy campaigns helped create a national identity while widening access to schooling. For a country with limited resources, these were important social gains.

The economic results were less successful. Villagization was sometimes coercive and disrupted established farming practices. State enterprises often lacked capital, skilled management and reliable transport. Drought, higher oil prices, the cost of the Uganda war and falling export earnings made shortages worse. Food insecurity and localized famine threats showed how dependent Tanzania was on rain-fed agriculture.

Tanzania still relied on foreign aid and imported machinery. This made self-reliance difficult: the state rejected foreign domination but still needed outside finance. During the 1980s, the government gradually accepted economic liberalization and reached agreements with international lenders. These reforms encouraged investment, but they also reduced subsidies and left poorer households facing higher costs.

### Comparison

| Challenge | Nigeria | Tanzania |
|---|---|---|
| Poverty | Persisted despite substantial oil income | Reinforced by low productivity and a narrow export base |
| Illiteracy | Educational expansion remained regionally unequal | Mass literacy was a central achievement of ujamaa |
| Disease | Weak and uneven services; growing HIV/AIDS burden | Wider basic provision, but shortages of funds and trained staff |
| Famine and food insecurity | Civil-war famine in Biafra and later local insecurity | Drought, weak agricultural output and disrupted production |
| External economic influence | Oil companies, debt and structural adjustment | Aid dependence, trade dependence and lender-backed reforms |

Economic historians often point to structural problems inherited from colonial rule, including export dependence, weak infrastructure and borders that joined unequal regions. Other interpretations place more emphasis on post-independence choices, such as corruption in Nigeria and inefficient state planning in Tanzania. External constraints and domestic decisions interacted rather than operating separately.

### Tanzania: constructing a single-party state

From independence, the Tanganyika African National Union, led by Nyerere, dominated politics on the mainland. Tanzania formally adopted a one-party system in 1965. In Zanzibar, the Afro-Shirazi Party was led by Abeid Karume. The two parties merged in 1977 to create **Chama Cha Mapinduzi** (CCM), which governed both parts of the union.

Several reasons supported the change:

- **Need for effective government:** Nyerere argued that a developing country needed unity and coordinated action, rather than competition between parties.
- **Fear of ethnic and regional division:** A national movement using Swahili seemed less likely to split along communal lines.
- **Failure or weakness of competitive democracy:** TANU’s overwhelming dominance left opposition parties with little electoral support. In Zanzibar, the Zanzibar Revolution had already displaced the previous party system.
- **Ideology:** The Arusha Declaration committed Tanzania to ujamaa and self-reliance. TANU supplied the party structures needed to mobilize society behind those aims.
- **Personal and institutional ambition:** One-party rule concentrated authority in Nyerere and the party leadership, as well as in Karume and his successors in Zanzibar.

The system still allowed competition between approved candidates, but all of them operated within the ruling party. TANU and ASP, and after 1977 CCM, subordinated Parliament, trade unions and local institutions to the party. Detention laws and restrictions on opposition narrowed political freedom.

Supporters argue that one-party rule helped build the nation, widened participation through local party structures and kept the military out of politics. Critics say it removed meaningful choice and shielded ineffective policies from scrutiny. Tanzania was genuinely stable, but political debate also became narrower.

### Nigeria: centralization without a lasting single-party state

Nigeria never established a durable civilian single-party state. Its experience provides a useful contrast: military regimes sought to suppress or manage party competition rather than bring society into one permanent ruling party.

After the 1966 coup, the military government suspended party politics. Later rulers attempted controlled transitions. Babangida created two officially approved parties—the Social Democratic Party and National Republican Convention—instead of allowing parties to develop freely. When he annulled the 1993 presidential election, he showed that the military authorities would retain power if an electoral result threatened their position.

Under Abacha, five registered parties adopted him as their intended presidential candidate during the planned transition. The arrangement would have created the appearance of civilian rule without genuine competition. His death in 1998 brought the project to an end.

Nigeria therefore shows that authoritarianism did not always produce a single-party system. Its ethnic and regional diversity made it difficult to create one accepted national party. Military rulers could govern directly through decrees, state administrators and patronage. Personal ambition and claims of administrative efficiency remained central, even without a formal one-party constitution.

### Why political liberalization returned

Across Africa, demands for multi-party politics grew during the 1980s and 1990s. Economic crisis weakened the argument that authoritarian governments could deliver effective development. Professional organizations, religious bodies, trade unions, journalists and civil-society groups called for greater accountability. The Cold War ended too, reducing the willingness of outside powers to support authoritarian allies simply for strategic reasons. International lenders and donors increasingly tied assistance to political and economic reform.

Domestic leadership still mattered greatly. Rulers could accept reform, manage it or block it. As a result, similar international pressures led to different outcomes in Nigeria and Tanzania.

### Tanzania: a controlled transition

Nyerere retired as president in 1985 and Ali Hassan Mwinyi succeeded him. Francis Nyalali led a presidential commission that examined the political system. Multi-party politics was restored in 1992, and Tanzania held its first multi-party national elections since the 1960s in 1995. CCM candidate Benjamin Mkapa won the presidency.

The transition established regular competitive elections without a military takeover or national civil war. Several factors helped:

- CCM accepted constitutional reform while keeping its strong organization and nationwide support.
- A shared language and national identity limited ethnic fragmentation in party competition.
- Civilian control of the armed forces removed a major threat to the transition.
- Nyerere’s retirement showed that presidential succession could take place without violent removal.

Democratization was still incomplete. CCM benefited from state resources, its historical position and a fragmented opposition. Elections in Zanzibar were bitterly disputed. Violence after the 2000 elections showed that political trust there remained weak. By 2005, Tanzania had durable multi-party institutions, but power had not regularly changed hands.

### Nigeria: failed and successful transitions

Babangida began a prolonged transition to civilian rule, but he annulled the presidential election of 12 June 1993. The election was widely believed to have been won by Moshood Abiola. That decision destroyed trust in the transition. An interim government followed, then Abacha seized power and repression returned. Abiola was detained after claiming the presidency and died in custody in 1998.

Abacha’s death gave General Abdulsalami Abubakar the opportunity to organize a shorter transition. Elections took place in 1998–99, and Olusegun Obasanjo became civilian president on 29 May 1999. As a former military ruler who had previously transferred power to civilians, he reassured parts of the armed forces. His national profile also gave him support beyond his Yoruba home region.

The Fourth Republic survived through 2005 because the leading military authorities accepted withdrawal, political elites reached workable compromises, and the federal system shared offices and revenue among states. Public exhaustion with military rule and pressure from civil society also played a role.

Serious weaknesses remained. Intimidation, administrative failures and accusations of fraud affected elections. Corruption, communal violence and disputes over oil revenue put pressure on civilian institutions. The armed forces returned to barracks, but politicians inherited the centralized and coercive structures created under military government.

### Reasons for different outcomes

Nigeria’s 1993 failure resulted chiefly from the military leadership refusing to accept an election that threatened its interests. The 1999 transition succeeded because the ruling military group was more prepared to leave office, while civilian and military elites accepted a negotiated political framework.

Tanzania’s transition caused less disruption because an established civilian ruling party managed it. That brought continuity and stability, but it also gave CCM advantages over its opponents. Multi-partyism was therefore not a single event. Its success depended on whether elections became accepted institutions, whether rulers tolerated opposition and whether the armed forces stayed out of politics.

**Economic growth** means producing more goods and services. **Economic development** covers a wider change: lasting improvements in living conditions, opportunity, infrastructure and human welfare. Growth can happen without its benefits reaching most people.

### Tanzania: reform, stability and investment

From the mid-1980s, Tanzania began moving away from strict state control. Successive governments liberalized trade, cut some state subsidies, privatized public enterprises and encouraged private and foreign investment. During Benjamin Mkapa’s presidency, from 1995 to 2005, fiscal management and market reform stayed at the centre of government policy.

Several factors supported growth:

- **Political stability:** the absence of coups and national civil war made long-term economic activity less risky.
- **Multi-partyism:** regular elections and constitutional government improved Tanzania’s external standing, although CCM dominance restricted the depth of political competition.
- **Leadership:** Nyerere’s peaceful retirement, followed by orderly successions to Mwinyi and Mkapa, strengthened institutional continuity.
- **Infrastructure:** spending on roads, communications and urban services linked producers and markets more effectively.
- **Investment:** liberalization attracted capital to mining, tourism and other services.
- **Economic reform:** privatization, trade liberalization and tighter public finance tackled some weaknesses of the earlier state-led model.

Growth did not end rural poverty or regional inequality. Tanzania still depended on aid and primary commodities. Privatization could also cause job losses or reduce access to subsidized services. The central question, then, is not whether reform helped growth. It is who gained from that growth and whether it created sufficiently broad development.

### Nigeria: oil-led growth and civilian reform

Nigeria entered the Fourth Republic in 1999 with damaged infrastructure, widespread corruption and a heavy dependence on oil. Rising oil income gave Obasanjo’s civilian government more resources. Telecommunications also expanded rapidly after liberalization. Banking and public-sector reforms aimed to strengthen financial stability and cut waste.

The main reasons for growth to 2005 were:

- **Political stability:** civilian government offered more predictable rule than repeated coups, even though communal and regional violence continued.
- **Multi-partyism:** elected institutions increased international legitimacy and put some pressure on the government to be accountable. Flawed elections, however, limited this effect.
- **Leadership:** Obasanjo’s government pursued privatization, anti-corruption measures and negotiations with international creditors.
- **Infrastructure:** investment in communications and transport supported business, although electricity and roads remained serious constraints.
- **Investment:** oil continued to attract foreign capital, while telecommunications became an important new area for private investment.
- **Economic reform:** deregulation, privatization and banking reform aimed to reduce state inefficiency and diversify economic activity.

Oil was both an advantage and a structural weakness. It provided government revenue and foreign exchange, yet dependence on prices made growth vulnerable. It also encouraged political competition over federal allocations. Environmental damage and poverty in the Niger Delta showed that high national income did not guarantee local development.

### Comparative judgement

Tanzania’s greatest strength was its prolonged political stability. That stability allowed gradual reform and investment to take place. Nigeria had much greater oil resources, but military rule, corruption and disputes over distribution held it back. By 2005, civilian and multi-party government had improved the conditions for growth in both states. That alone was not enough.

Market-oriented explanations highlight privatization, investment and integration into the global economy. Institution-focused interpretations stress stable leadership, predictable government and civilian control of the military. Critical accounts argue that externally supported reforms could deepen inequality or dependence. Evidence from both countries suggests that growth was strongest when reform, infrastructure and investment operated within a stable political framework. Development remained limited where poverty and unequal access to services continued.

Post-war developments in the Middle East (1945–2000)

History

IB History develops students' understanding of significant historical events, themes, and interpretations across different periods and regions.Students learn to analyze historical sources critically, understand complex historical narratives, and develop sophisticated historical thinking skills.

HL1.18 Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005

Question 1

[15]

Question 2

[15]

Question 3

[15]

Question 4

[15]