Drawn for this booklet from World Bank, World Development Indicators (ER.H2O.FWST.ZS); 74 data points.

The graph shows levels of water stress in four Nile Basin countries, 2000–2021.

The graph shows levels of water stress in four Nile Basin countries, 2000–2021. — Drawn for this booklet from World Bank, World Development Indicators (ER.H2O.FWST.ZS); 74 data points.

Equality

Environmental problems across borders

International environmental cooperation

Resource depletion and political tension

Growth and sustainable development

Environmental processes don’t stop at political borders. Pollution, altered river flows and ecological damage can turn one state’s domestic choices into a regional political issue. Interdependence limits sovereignty and raises questions about responsibility and legitimacy.

### Case study: Hydropower development in the Mekong basin, 2010–2024

The Mekong flows from China through or alongside Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. Since 2010, dams built on the river and its tributaries have been a source of disagreement about electricity generation, water flows, fisheries and sediment transport. Laos views hydropower exports as a path to national development. Downstream communities, however, rely on the river for food and livelihoods.

China operates major dams on the upper river, where it is known as the Lancang. Laos moved ahead with projects such as the Xayaburi dam, which began commercial operation in 2019. Cambodia and Vietnam have raised concerns about the downstream consequences, even though their governments also purchase electricity or pursue infrastructure projects of their own. Scientific studies connect dams with ecological changes. The relative effects of dams, drought, climate change and other pressures are still disputed.

### Actors, interests and power

- **China** has considerable upstream and economic power. Although it shares some information and participates in the Lancang–Mekong Cooperation framework established in 2016, it is not a member of the Mekong River Commission.
- **Laos** claims sovereign authority over development within its territory and seeks income from exports. At the same time, economic dependence on infrastructure investment and electricity markets restricts its choices.
- **Cambodia and Vietnam** face threats to fisheries, agriculture and the Mekong Delta. They have limited leverage because neither can independently control upstream construction.
- The **Mekong River Commission**, created by the 1995 Mekong Agreement, facilitates consultation, monitoring and technical cooperation between Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. It cannot simply veto a project proposed by a member state.
- Fishing communities, environmental organizations and researchers provide local knowledge and apply public pressure. They hold less formal decision-making power than governments and developers.

### Response and effects

Regional institutions have set up prior-consultation procedures, commissioned environmental studies and increased water-data sharing. These steps have made transboundary consequences more visible, yet consultation has not consistently secured agreement before construction begins. Unequal bargaining power weakens cooperation. So does the absence of all basin states from a single binding institution, while governments continue to pursue competing development priorities.

The case shows that sovereignty still matters, but it cannot by itself govern a shared ecosystem. An upstream state may act inside its own territory while shifting environmental and economic costs onto people elsewhere.

### Possible courses of action

A basin-wide system could require the timely publication of reservoir operations, shared environmental assessments and agreed minimum-flow protections. Commercial secrecy and mistrust would create major obstacles, as would states’ reluctance to accept external limits on sovereign development.

States could instead negotiate compensation and benefit-sharing arrangements for affected communities, with funding from dam operators and electricity purchasers. Such arrangements would not reverse every ecological loss. Disputes over causation and the value of lost livelihoods would also make compensation difficult.

### Links to other global political challenges

This case links to **poverty** because harm to fisheries and farming falls disproportionately on households that depend on natural resources. It also connects to **security** when water and food insecurity increase interstate suspicion or local unrest. The link to **borders** is clear: a shared river turns territorial decisions into cross-border political disputes.

Climate change and related environmental pressures create collective-action problems. Effective action benefits all states, yet each state has an incentive to push the costs onto others. International cooperation has to balance sovereignty with common rules, credible implementation and differentiated responsibilities.

### Case study: The Kigali Amendment, 2016–2024

Adopted in Rwanda in 2016, the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol entered into force in 2019. Participating states must reduce their production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs. These gases became widely used in refrigeration and air conditioning as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances, but they can contribute strongly to global warming.

This case connects climate mitigation with the fast-growing demand for cooling. The issue is particularly significant in warmer and developing states, where refrigeration supports health, food storage and economic activity. The political challenge isn’t simply to eliminate cooling. States must replace damaging refrigerants without denying development needs.

### Actors, interests and power

- National governments negotiate obligations, then regulate producers, importers and users. China accepted the amendment in 2021, India ratified it in 2021, while the United States ratified it in 2022.
- Developing states secured later reduction schedules to reflect differences in historical responsibility, capacity and demand for cooling.
- The **United Nations Environment Programme** supports the Montreal Protocol's institutions, reporting and implementation.
- Through technology transfer, training and support for conversion costs, the **Multilateral Fund** assists eligible developing countries.
- Chemical manufacturers and refrigeration companies may resist costly regulation. They can also benefit commercially from developing alternatives.
- Scientific bodies and environmental organizations provide expertise and pressure governments to strengthen implementation.

### Response and effects

Rather than depending only on voluntary promises, the amendment uses binding national schedules, reporting requirements and the Montreal Protocol’s established institutions. Differentiated timetables helped build legitimacy because they recognized unequal capacities. Financial assistance made participation more practical.

Domestic enforcement still determines how effective the amendment will be. Compliance can be weakened by illegal trade, weak customs systems and shortages of trained technicians. The cost or safety requirements of alternative refrigerants can create further problems. Rising demand for air conditioning may offset some gains unless new equipment is energy-efficient.

The case shows that interdependence can encourage cooperation when states can measure obligations, provide finance and allow businesses to adapt. Formal adoption of an agreement, however, doesn’t guarantee successful implementation.

### Possible courses of action

Parties could provide more financial and technical support for efficient cooling equipment. They could also fund technician training and the safe handling of alternative refrigerants. The difficulty lies in maintaining long-term funding and making sure support reaches states with limited regulatory capacity.

Governments could coordinate customs data and product standards to curb illegal HFC trade. Doing so would require administrative resources and trust between states. Stronger controls could also increase short-term costs for consumers and small businesses.

### Links to other global political challenges

The amendment connects to **health** because reliable cooling protects medicines, food and people during extreme heat. Its link to **equality** and **poverty** comes from the uneven distribution of transition costs and access to cooling. It also relates to **technology** because political commitments rely on substitute refrigerants and efficient equipment being available, affordable and safe to use.

Population growth and resource-intensive development put more pressure on resources that are finite or unevenly distributed. Scarcity becomes political when actors clash over access, ownership or acceptable use—especially when one actor’s resource security seems to come at another’s expense.

### Case study: The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and Nile politics, 2011–2024

Ethiopia began building the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile in 2011, then started filling its reservoir in 2020. Electricity generation followed in 2022. Ethiopia presents the project as essential for electrification, industrialization and poverty reduction. Egypt, by contrast, treats reliable Nile flows as a matter of national survival. Sudan faces possible benefits as well as risks.

Across the region, population growth, agricultural pressure and climate variability are driving greater demand for water and energy. The dam does not consume water in the same way as irrigation. However, the speed of reservoir filling—and the way the dam operates during prolonged drought—can affect when water reaches downstream states and how much they receive.

### Actors, interests and power

- **Ethiopia** claims a sovereign right to use the river for development. It rejects arrangements that, in its view, maintain historically unequal control of Nile waters.
- **Egypt** wants a binding agreement covering filling, drought management and dispute resolution. Although it can draw on diplomatic influence and earlier Nile agreements, it cannot physically control an upstream project.
- **Sudan** could benefit from regulated flows, cheaper electricity and reduced flooding. At the same time, it needs dam-safety information and coordination to protect its infrastructure and communities.
- The **African Union** has facilitated negotiations and emphasized an African-led process. The United Nations Security Council has discussed the dispute too, but has not imposed a settlement.
- Farmers, electricity users and riverside communities feel the effects directly. Yet their governments represent them in negotiations, rather than these groups participating formally themselves.

### Response and effects

In 2015, Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan signed a Declaration of Principles that recognized cooperation, equitable use and the need to avoid significant harm. Later negotiations dealt with filling schedules, data exchange and drought procedures. Talks remained unresolved as Ethiopia continued filling the reservoir, and by 2024 no comprehensive binding agreement had been reached.

The dam has expanded Ethiopia’s electricity-generating capacity and reinforced the government’s claim to a fairer regional distribution of development opportunities. But unilateral filling and failed negotiations have also increased mistrust. In all three states, domestic nationalism has left less political room for compromise.

### Possible courses of action

One option is a binding operating agreement, with rules that adjust according to rainfall and reservoir levels, backed by real-time data sharing. The sticking points are who gets to define drought conditions and whether outside arbitration would place an unacceptable limit on sovereignty.

Another option is a benefit-sharing framework covering electricity trade, coordinated reservoirs and compensation for demonstrable harm. This could turn the dam into a shared regional asset. It would still depend on reliable infrastructure, continued diplomatic trust and acceptance from domestic audiences.

### Links to other global political challenges

The case connects to **security** because states frame water and energy concerns as national-security interests. It relates to **poverty** through Ethiopia’s need for electricity and the dependence of downstream communities on irrigated livelihoods. The dispute also links to **borders**, since territorial sovereignty alone cannot settle control over a transboundary river.

Economic growth can create jobs and generate public revenue for infrastructure. Yet it can also deplete the ecosystems that future well-being depends on. The sustainable development debate centres on who gains the benefits now, who carries the environmental costs, and who has legitimate authority to make decisions for the long term.

### Case study: Oil extraction in Ecuador's Yasuní National Park, 2007–2024

Yasuní National Park has exceptional biodiversity. It overlaps with the ancestral territories of Indigenous peoples, including groups living in voluntary isolation, and contains significant petroleum reserves. In 2007, Ecuador's government launched the Yasuní-ITT Initiative, offering to leave the oil underground in exchange for international financial contributions. The government ended the initiative in 2013 after contributions fell short of expectations.

Oil production in Block 43, also called ITT, began in 2016. Supporters argued that petroleum revenue could pay for public services and national development. Opponents said extraction threatened biodiversity, Indigenous rights and long-term sustainability. They also argued that it reinforced dependence on fossil-fuel exports.

### Actors, interests and power

- Ecuador's national government held legal and administrative authority over oil policy. It prioritized revenue, energy policy and development.
- The state oil company **Petroecuador** operated the project, backed by major technical and economic resources.
- The environmental movement **YASunidos** campaigned for a referendum. It challenged extraction through the courts, public mobilization and electoral participation.
- Waorani organizations and advocates for peoples in voluntary isolation focused on territorial rights, cultural survival and protection from outside contact. Indigenous views were not entirely uniform, especially where communities had to weigh employment and services against environmental risks.
- In the August 2023 national referendum, voters used direct democratic power to approve an end to oil extraction from Block 43.
- International environmental organizations and donors shaped the debate. However, the collapse of the earlier compensation initiative showed the limits of relying on voluntary global finance.

### Response and effects

The 2023 referendum gave the anti-extraction position strong democratic legitimacy. It required the state to halt operations within the legal timetable established for implementation. Even so, closing wells, dismantling infrastructure and restoring affected areas led to technical, fiscal and political disputes. By 2024, campaigners were criticizing the slow pace of implementation, while the government pointed to the economic and operational difficulties involved.

The fiscal consequences remain contested. Estimates vary with oil prices and production costs, as well as assumptions about future output. So the case isn't a simple choice between prosperity and conservation. Instead, it raises two questions: does short-term extractive revenue produce lasting development, and should national majorities decide issues that affect particular Indigenous territories and globally significant ecosystems?

### Possible courses of action

Ecuador could set out a transparent timetable for decommissioning, ecological restoration and the protection of peoples in voluntary isolation, with independent monitoring. Carrying it out effectively would demand substantial funding and institutional capacity. Delays could weaken the referendum's legitimacy.

The government could use tax reform, renewable-energy investment and international conservation finance to reduce its dependence on oil revenue. The difficulty lies in replacing income quickly and protecting employment without creating a new dependence on uncertain external funding.

### Links to other global political challenges

Yasuní connects to **identity** because Indigenous relationships with territory challenge a purely economic view of land. It links to **equality** because national benefits and local environmental burdens are distributed unevenly. The case also relates to **poverty**, as governments may defend extraction as a source of social spending. Finally, it connects to **technology** because moving away from oil requires alternative energy systems and economic infrastructure.

Borders

Select a political issue from one of your researched case studies and explicitly explain how the interests of three types of actors or stakeholders differ.

Using the issue examined in part (a), recommend measures that would give the most affected local stakeholders greater influence over transboundary environmental decisions.

Choose a political issue from one of your researched case studies and explicitly explain two barriers to effective international environmental cooperation.

For the issue explored in part (a), recommend a course of action to strengthen states’ implementation of a cooperative environmental response.

Global Politics

Global Politics examines contemporary political issues and power dynamics at local, national, and international levels. The course encourages students to critically analyze global challenges, understand different political perspectives, and develop skills in political analysis and international relations.

HL.2 Environment

Question 1

[3]

Question 2

[3]

Question 3

[4]

[6]

Question 4

[4]

[6]

Question 5

[15]

Question 6

[15]