Question 1
A forestry association publishes a voluntary code asking companies to avoid logging near rivers. A national statute prohibits logging within 30 m of a river and authorizes government inspectors to issue fines.
Distinguish the national statute from the voluntary code.
[2]
Question 2
A regional authority replaced a voluntary industrial pollution code with a legally enforceable permit system at the beginning of 2022. The permits specify discharge limits and allow inspectors to issue restoration orders and fines.
Figure 1 shows enforcement data for facilities covered by the system.
Calculate the percentage decrease in the proportion of inspections that detected a violation between 2021 and 2023.
[2]
Describe two changes in regulatory activity between 2021 and 2023.
[2]
Explain why the permit system is a law rather than a voluntary environmental policy, and why it may have reduced non-compliance.
[2]
Question 3
A local council permits untreated wastewater to be released into a stream. A national water-quality law prohibits the release, while an international agreement requires the country to protect the river basin shared with a neighbouring state.
Identify the scale at which each of the three rules operates.
[2]
Outline how the hierarchy of laws should resolve the conflict.
[1]
Question 4
Three countries have adopted similar legal limits for discharges from industrial facilities. Table 1 summarizes the implementation of these laws during one year.
Implementation of similar industrial discharge limits during one year; each country regulates 100 facilities.
| Country | Inspections / 100 facilities | Breaches detected | Sanctions imposed | Median case resolution / months | Regulator expenditure / USD 000 per facility |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | 80 | 24 | 21 | 6 | 12 |
| B | 30 | 15 | 6 | 28 | 4 |
| C | 55 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 8 |
Calculate the percentage of detected breaches that resulted in a sanction in country B.
[1]
Compare the implementation of environmental law in countries A and B.
[2]
Explain three reasons why the same legal standard may be more effective in country A than in country B.
[3]
State one limitation of using these data to conclude that country A has the most effective environmental law.
[1]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 5
A company proposes constructing a shipping terminal beside an estuary containing seagrass habitat and a fishing community. The proposal is summarized in Figure 1.
Explain three ways in which an environmental impact assessment could support decision-making before the terminal is approved.
[3]
Question 6
Countries X and Y have adopted the same legal limit for industrial wastewater. Figure 2 summarizes the institutions responsible for implementation in each country.
Explain why the wastewater law is likely to be more effective in Country X than in Country Y.
[3]
Question 7
Figure 4 summarizes the implementation of an international agreement regulating international trade in listed wildlife species and wildlife products.
Explain how institutions shown in Figure 4 support the implementation of CITES.
[3]
Question 8
The fictional state of Belvar introduced the Clean Estuary Act in 2021. The Act limits discharges of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) from industrial facilities to . It authorizes inspections, fines and orders requiring environmental restoration.
Lower Vela Estuary monitoring data, 2020–2025
| Year | Act status | Mean DIN / mg L | Inspections |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2020 | Not in force | 11.8 | 96 |
| 2021 | In force | 11.5 | 41 |
| 2022 | In force | 10.9 | 28 |
| 2023 | In force | 10.6 | 25 |
| 2024 | In force | 10.4 | 23 |
| 2025 | In force | 10.1 | 22 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in the mean DIN concentration between 2020 and 2025.
[2]
Distinguish the Clean Estuary Act from a voluntary environmental policy.
[2]
Explain how the implementation of the Act may fail to achieve environmental justice.
[3]
Evaluate the effectiveness of the Clean Estuary Act between 2021 and 2025.
[5]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 9
A city is considering an application for a waste-incineration facility near three residential districts. The applicant predicts that the facility will increase annual mean concentrations of . Figure 2 also summarizes income and lobbying data collected during the approval process.
Predicted particulate pollution, household income and approval-process meetings.
| Category / group | Current annual mean / | Predicted annual mean / | Low-income households / % | Meetings with city decision-makers |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Northgate | 18 | 27 | 62 | — |
| Riverside | 14 | 16 | 28 | — |
| Hillview | 9 | 10 | 12 | — |
| Waste-industry representatives | — | — | — | 24 |
| Local residents | — | — | — | 6 |
| Public-health NGOs | — | — | — | 4 |
Identify the district expected to experience the highest predicted pollution burden.
[1]
Calculate the percentage increase in annual mean predicted for Northgate.
[2]
Explain how the proposed location and the approval process may raise concerns about environmental justice.
[2]
Suggest two legal requirements that could make the approval process more equitable.
[2]
Question 10
The constitution of country D recognizes a right to a healthy environment and requires the state to protect forests. In 2020, young claimants obtained a judgment requiring the government to prepare and fund a national deforestation plan.
Figure 3 shows selected indicators before and after the judgment.
Selected forest-protection indicators in country D, 2018–2022.
| Year | Annual forest loss / thousand ha | Enforcement budget / USD million | Field patrols / number |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2018 | 96 | 8 | — |
| 2019 | 92 | 8 | 400 |
| 2020 | 85 | 10 | — |
| 2021 | 70 | 17 | — |
| 2022 | 61 | 19 | 950 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in annual forest loss between 2019 and 2022.
[2]
Describe the relationship between enforcement resources and forest loss shown after the judgment.
[2]
Explain how environmental constitutionalism enabled the claimants to influence forest policy.
[2]
State one reason why the data do not prove that constitutional recognition alone caused the reduction in forest loss.
[1]
Question 11
Country E implements controls on international wildlife trade under CITES. Its scientific authority uses conservation-status evidence, including assessments produced by the IUCN, when advising whether trade should be permitted.
Figure 6 shows the institutional process and annual permit and inspection data.
Country E annual CITES permit outcomes and border-enforcement data.
| Measure | Annual number |
|---|---|
| Permit applications received | 1200 |
| Applications approved | 840 |
| Applications rejected | 240 |
| Applications pending | 120 |
| Wildlife shipments inspected | 420 |
| Shipments seized | 63 |
| Seizures with no valid permit | 45 |
Distinguish the roles of the CITES framework and the IUCN in the process shown.
[2]
Calculate the percentage of decided permit applications that were rejected.
[1]
Explain why both international and national institutions are required to regulate the trade shown.
[2]
Suggest two reasons why illegal wildlife trade may continue despite the institutional system shown.
[2]
Question 12
A proposed air-quality law would require factories near a low-income residential district to install emission-control technology. An industry group is lobbying against the proposal because of its compliance costs.
Explain how the proposed law could support environmental justice.
[2]
Explain how lobbying by the industry group could weaken or delay the law.
[2]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 13
The constitution of a country recognizes a right to a healthy environment. A court finds that government failure to control widespread forest clearance threatens this right and orders the government to prepare a restoration plan.
Explain one way in which environmental constitutionalism may strengthen forest protection.
[2]
State one reason why the court order may not result in forest restoration.
[1]
Question 14
Figure 3 shows a river basin shared by three countries.
Explain two reasons why international law is needed for sustainable management of this river basin.
[4]
Question 15
A national law grants a river legal personhood and appoints two guardians to represent its rights and interests.
Explain two ways in which legal personhood could strengthen protection of the river.
[2]
Explain how granting the river legal personhood reflects an ecocentric or rights-based ethical perspective.
[2]
Question 16
A company proposes an open-cast copper mine beside Lake Nembi. National law requires an environmental impact assessment (EIA) before a development permit is issued.
Comparison of proposed mine alternatives and EIA process information.
| Criterion | Site A | Site B | Site C |
|---|---|---|---|
| Annual copper output / tonnes | 82 000 | 69 000 | 0 |
| Employment / jobs | 610 | 520 | 35 restoration jobs |
| Wetland loss / ha | 38 | 6 | 0 |
| Sulfate at intake / mg L | 260 | 95 | 42 |
| Annual monitoring cost / million national currency units | 1.2 | 1.8 | 0.4 |
| Legal sulfate standard / mg L | 150 | 150 | 150 |
| EIA financing | Financed by mining company | Financed by mining company | Financed by mining company |
| Field survey coverage | One dry-season survey | One dry-season survey | One dry-season survey |
| Biodiversity information | Raw data not published | Raw data not published | Raw data not published |
| Status of EIA | Advisory; not binding on permit authority | Advisory; not binding on permit authority | Advisory; not binding on permit authority |
Identify the mine-site alternative predicted to comply with the legal sulfate standard while producing copper.
[1]
Calculate the percentage reduction in wetland loss if Site B is selected instead of Site A.
[2]
Explain two ways in which an EIA could reduce the environmental impact of the proposed mine.
[4]
Evaluate whether the EIA provides an adequate basis for deciding whether the mine should be permitted.
[5]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 17
The fictional country of Arandia amended its constitution in 2017 to recognize a right to a healthy environment and a state duty to protect forests for present and future generations. In 2020, young citizens successfully argued that continued forest clearance threatened these constitutional rights.
Arandia forest monitoring and implementation data, 2016–2025.
| Year | Legal event | Forest clearance / ha | Enforcement expenditure / million NCU | Municipal plans completed / % | Complaints investigated / % | Public data reporting |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2016 | — | 94 | 44 | — | — | — |
| 2017 | Constitution amended | 101 | 43 | — | — | — |
| 2018 | — | 108 | 42 | — | — | — |
| 2019 | — | 112 | 41 | — | — | — |
| 2020 | Supreme Court judgment | 116 | 45 | — | — | — |
| 2021 | — | 109 | 53 | — | — | — |
| 2022 | — | 103 | 61 | — | — | — |
| 2023 | — | 98 | 68 | — | — | — |
| 2024 | — | 91 | 73 | — | — | — |
| 2025 | — | 87 | 78 | 61 | 46 | Established |
State one feature that makes a constitutional environmental right different from an ordinary environmental policy.
[1]
Describe the trend in annual forest clearance from the 2020 judgment to 2025.
[2]
Explain how the court judgment could convert the constitutional right into environmental action.
[4]
To what extent was environmental constitutionalism effective in reducing forest clearance in Arandia?
[5]
Question 18
The River Orin crosses the fictional states of Daran, Melu and Sava. A proposed bilateral agreement between upstream Daran and downstream Melu would regulate water abstraction and pollution. Sava, at the river mouth, is not a party to the proposal.
River Orin monitoring data and proposed Daran–Melu agreement provisions.
| Measure / provision | Daran (upstream) | Melu (downstream) | Sava (river mouth) |
|---|---|---|---|
| River position | Upstream | Middle reach | River mouth |
| Dry-season flow / | 310 | 205 | 176 |
| Wet-season flow / | 920 | 780 | 701 |
| Mean nitrate / | 3.1 | 7.8 | 7.2 |
| Suspended sediment / million tonnes per year | 14.2 | 7.1 | 5.8 |
| Main nitrate input | Agricultural runoff | — | — |
| Main water use | Irrigation, industry and hydropower | — | — |
| Proposed nitrate standard / | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 (reference only; not bound) |
| Agreement participation | Party | Party | Not a party |
| Shared monitoring | Monthly | Monthly | Not included |
| Prior notice of new dams | Must notify Melu | Receives notice | Not included |
| Dry-season allocation / | — | No allocation | |
| Independent compliance body | None | None | — |
| Sanctions for non-compliance | None | None | — |
| Sediment allocation | Not specified | Not specified | Not specified |
| Ecosystem requirements | Not specified | Not specified | Not specified |
Identify one transboundary pollution issue and one transboundary resource-management issue shown in the resources.
[2]
Calculate the percentage decrease in dry-season river flow between Daran and Sava.
[2]
Explain why national or local laws acting independently would be insufficient to manage the River Orin.
[4]
Evaluate the proposed bilateral agreement as a means of achieving sustainable and fair management of the River Orin.
[5]
Question 19
The fictional blue-crowned pangolin is listed under the strictest trade controls of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Its scales are moved through Port Kalo. CITES provides a shared international framework, while national authorities issue permits and inspect shipments. The IUCN publishes scientific assessments of the species.
Port Kalo wildlife shipments inspected and pangolin-scale seizures, 2019–2025.
| Year | Declared shipments | Inspected shipments | Not inspected | Seized scales / tonnes | Digital CITES permits |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2019 | 8 000 | 1 120 | 6 880 | 2.1 | — |
| 2020 | 8 400 | 1 260 | 7 140 | 2.8 | — |
| 2021 | 8 900 | 1 068 | 7 832 | 3.5 | — |
| 2022 | 9 300 | 930 | 8 370 | 3.1 | Introduced |
| 2023 | 9 700 | 873 | 8 827 | 2.6 | — |
| 2024 | 10 100 | 808 | 9 292 | 2.0 | — |
| 2025 | 10 500 | 735 | 9 765 | 1.4 | — |
Calculate the percentage of declared shipments inspected in 2021.
[2]
Distinguish the roles of CITES and the IUCN in this case study.
[2]
Explain why the decrease in seized pangolin scales does not necessarily show that illegal trade decreased.
[3]
Evaluate the effectiveness of the institutions supporting protection of the blue-crowned pangolin.
[5]
Question 20
The Luma River flows from the upstream state of Auria into the downstream state of Belvar. A bilateral agreement requires consultation when a project changes dry-season border flow by more than 15%. It also establishes a minimum border flow and a water-quality standard.
Figure 4 shows the river basin and conditions before and after an upstream dam began operating.
Conditions in the Luma River basin before and after upstream dam operation.
| Indicator | Before dam | After dam | Agreement standard |
|---|---|---|---|
| Upstream dry-season abstraction | — | ||
| Dry-season border flow | Minimum | ||
| Border pollutant concentration | Maximum | ||
| Annual downstream fish catch | — |
Identify two standards or obligations in the bilateral agreement that may not have been met after the dam began operating.
[2]
Calculate the percentage increase in upstream dry-season abstraction after the dam began operating.
[2]
Explain two ways in which operation of the dam may affect environmental or social systems in Belvar.
[2]
Suggest two provisions that could strengthen the bilateral management of the Luma River.
[2]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 21
Figure 5 compares selected features and indicators for three international environmental agreements. All indices have a value of 100 in the stated baseline year.
Figure 5. Selected features and outcome indicators of three international environmental agreements.
| Agreement | Participation stated | Legal approach | Implementation features | Indicator (baseline 100; do not combine) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Montreal Protocol | 198 participating parties | Binding schedules for controlled ozone-depleting substances | Differentiated timetables; financial and technical support; substitutes available | Controlled-substance consumption index: |
| Kyoto Protocol | Participating industrialized countries | Binding greenhouse-gas targets for participating industrialized countries | Later commitment-period coverage: of emissions | Target-group greenhouse-gas emissions index: at baseline, then |
| Paris Agreement | 195 participating parties | All parties submit nationally determined contributions | Common reporting and repeated global stocktake cycles | Global greenhouse-gas emissions index: |
Identify the agreement with the broadest stated participation.
[1]
Calculate the percentage decrease in the controlled-substance consumption index under the Montreal Protocol.
[2]
Compare the legal approaches of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
[2]
Explain three factors that may account for the relative outcomes shown for the agreements.
[3]
Question 22
Explain two reasons why the Montreal Protocol has been relatively more successful than the Kyoto Protocol in addressing its environmental objective.
[4]
Question 23
An international tribunal finds that one state's industrial discharge damaged a marine ecosystem in a neighbouring state's waters.
Explain two difficulties the tribunal may face when determining compensation for the environmental damage.
[4]
Question 24
A law prohibits a factory from dumping chemical waste. Illegal dumping would save the factory $240 000. The probability of detecting one offence is 0.25. Assume that the fine is the only financial consequence and that the factory bases its decision on the expected financial penalty.
Calculate the minimum fine required for the expected financial penalty to equal the saving from illegal dumping. Show your working.
[2]
Explain why combining the prohibition with monitoring and financial penalties may be more effective than using either a legal or an economic strategy alone.
[2]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 25
Figure 5 compares three fictional multilateral environmental agreements developed through United Nations negotiations.
Outcomes of three fictional multilateral environmental agreements. Percentage changes use different pressures and baselines and are not directly equivalent.
| Agreement | Participation / % | Participation basis | Pressure outcome / % | Finance delivered / % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| SCP | Controlled production | ozone-depleting-substance production | ||
| ICP | Global GHG emissions | party emissions; global emissions | ||
| GCA | Global GHG emissions | projected global GHG emissions by 2035 |
State one difference between a convention and a protocol.
[1]
Identify the agreement with the greatest participation and the agreement with the highest proportion of promised finance delivered.
[2]
Explain two reasons why the SCP achieved a greater reduction in its targeted environmental pressure than the ICP or GCA.
[4]
Suggest why the GCA achieved wider participation than the ICP.
[2]
Compare and contrast the relative success of the three agreements.
[5]
Question 26
States Erona and Falda have accepted the jurisdiction of an international tribunal in a dispute over a chemical spill. A factory in Erona released solvent into a river that crosses into Falda and enters a coastal wetland. Falda seeks restoration costs and compensation for lost ecosystem services.
Figure 7(b). Environmental-damages assessment for the coastal wetland.
| Assessment | Low estimate | High estimate | Unit / relevant evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Immediate contaminant removal | 18 | 24 | million currency units |
| Five-year wetland restoration | 42 | 71 | million currency units |
| Verified fishery-income loss | 16 | 19 | million currency units |
| Water-purification service loss | 12 | 46 | million currency units |
| Cultural and recreational loss | 3 | 28 | million currency units |
| Baseline wetland area | 7 600 | 8 900 | ha; baseline disputed |
| Visibly damaged wetland area | 2 300 | 2 300 | ha after spill |
| Factory-attributed solvent residues | 76 | 88 | %; two pre-existing sources and a flood also contributed |
| Predicted ecological recovery | 6 | 18 | years |
| Irreversible damage risk | 400 | 400 | ha; probability 20% |
State one limitation on access to the international tribunal shown in Figure 7(a).
[1]
Calculate the midpoint of the estimated five-year wetland-restoration cost range.
[2]
Explain two difficulties the tribunal would face when determining environmental damages.
[4]
Suggest how the tribunal could account for uncertainty when deciding remedies.
[2]
Evaluate the ability of an international tribunal to resolve this environmental dispute fairly and effectively.
[4]
Question 27
In 2019, the fictional Te Ranu River Act recognized the Te Ranu River as a legal person with rights to ecological integrity and restoration. Two guardians represent the river: one selected by the national government and one selected by the Ranu Indigenous Council. In 2022, a nutrient-management programme combined legal limits with economic instruments.
Annual Te Ranu River condition and compliance data; ecological nitrate target = .
| Year | Mean nitrate / | Native plant cover / % | Permit violations | Legal event |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2018 | 8.6 | 24 | 46 | — |
| 2019 | 8.4 | 23 | 49 | River personhood law |
| 2020 | 8.1 | 22 | 45 | — |
| 2021 | 8.0 | 21 | 43 | — |
| 2022 | 7.7 | 22 | 41 | Integrated nutrient programme |
| 2023 | 6.9 | 27 | 30 | — |
| 2024 | 6.1 | 34 | 22 | — |
| 2025 | 5.4 | 41 | 17 | — |
| 2026 | 4.9 | 47 | 13 | — |
Outline one way in which legal personhood changes the legal protection of the Te Ranu River.
[2]
Explain how legal personhood reflects an ecocentric and rights-based ethical approach.
[3]
Analyse the changes in river condition and compliance shown in Figure 8(b).
[3]
Explain why integrating legal and economic strategies may be more effective than using either strategy alone.
[3]
Evaluate the effectiveness and limitations of the legal-personhood and nutrient-management framework.
[3]
Question 28
The Arana Estuary crosses the boundary between states F and G. State F recognizes the estuary as a legal person represented by two guardians. Following an oil spill, the guardians began a domestic case, while states F and G submitted a dispute concerning marine pollution to an international tribunal.
The company responsible reported a clean-up cost of USD 6.4 million. Figure 7 shows selected environmental and social indicators.
Selected indicators for the Arana Estuary. The domestic court may order prevention, restoration and compensation; the international tribunal hears disputes between consenting states under the applicable marine agreement.
| Indicator | Environmental baseline | Immediately after spill | 3 years after restoration began |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mangrove habitat / ha | 80 | 52 | 70 |
| Annual fish catch / tonnes | 240 | 110 | 180 |
| Cultural-access days / days per year | 90 | 20 | 65 |
| Protected shorebird breeding pairs / pairs | 46 | 18 | 31 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in annual fish catch from the environmental baseline to immediately after the spill.
[2]
Explain how legal personhood may strengthen protection of the Arana Estuary.
[2]
Explain two difficulties a court or tribunal may face when determining compensation for the spill.
[2]
Evaluate an integrated legal and economic response to the spill using the data shown.
[2]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 29
Environmental law can influence how human activities affect the environment and how development decisions are made. Answer all parts.
Outline how environmental law may act preventively, correctively and deterrently.
[4]
Analyse how an environmental impact assessment may promote ecological sustainability and environmental justice, while remaining vulnerable to political and economic influence.
[7]
Using named examples, discuss the extent to which environmental law can reconcile economic development with ecological sustainability and environmental justice.
[9]
Question 30
Outline four conditions required for the effective implementation of environmental law.
[4]
Analyse why identical environmental standards may produce different environmental outcomes in different countries.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the claim that institutional capacity is more important than the strictness of legal standards in achieving environmental protection.
[9]
Question 31
Outline three factors that determine the most appropriate scale for an environmental law.
[3]
Explain how international law can address transboundary pollution and the management of shared natural resources.
[8]
Using named examples, evaluate the effectiveness of integrating local, national and international law in managing transboundary environmental issues.
[9]
Question 32
Distinguish an international convention from a protocol, and outline the meaning of differentiated responsibilities in international environmental law.
[4]
Compare and contrast the legal approaches of the Montreal Protocol, Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement.
[7]
To what extent is the design of an international environmental agreement more important than scientific, technological, economic and political conditions in determining its success? Refer to named agreements and their subsequent developments.
[9]
Build a Practice Exam — ESS HL
Test your knowledge with a custom paper containing questions from selected topics.
Question 33
Outline four ways in which environmental constitutionalism may influence environmental governance.
[4]
Explain the difficulties courts and tribunals face when determining remedies and compensation for environmental damage.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the effectiveness of national and international courts in converting environmental rights and obligations into environmental outcomes.
[9]
Question 34
Explain four ways in which granting legal personhood to a natural entity may change its legal protection.
[4]
Analyse why integrating legal and economic strategies may achieve more sustainable resource use than relying on either approach alone.
[7]
Using named examples, discuss whether granting legal personhood to natural entities provides a more effective route to sustainable environmental management than conventional legal and economic strategies.
[9]
The Ultimate All-in-One
IB Platform
All content on this website has been developed independently from and is not endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Organization. International Baccalaureate and IB are registered trademarks owned by the International Baccalaureate Organization.