Self-determination theory proposes that people seek to fulfil three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness. To explain motivation, it considers whether people feel that their actions are their own. It also asks whether they feel capable of succeeding and connected to others.

Autonomy, competence and relatedness

Autonomy means feeling that you have chosen your actions and personally endorse them. In badminton, a player experiences autonomy when they help choose the focus of a practice session instead of simply following instructions they do not accept.

Competence means feeling capable and effective in what you do. When a player sees their serve becoming more accurate, they have evidence that their practice is working.

Relatedness means feeling connected to other people, accepted by them and cared for. A training partner who includes a player and takes an interest in their progress can help that player experience relatedness.

Applying the theory in coaching

A coach can address all three needs in a single session. Players choose between two suitable serving tasks and work towards a challenging but achievable target. They practise with a supportive partner. The same task can therefore give players choice and a sense of capability while also providing social connection.

Autonomy doesn't mean training without guidance. A player can accept a coach's structure and still feel that participation is their own choice. Competence is about perceived capability, rather than simply being the strongest performer in the group. For relatedness, the quality of the connection matters—not merely being surrounded by teammates.

Key terms: self-determination theory, autonomy, competence, relatedness.

Amotivation

Amotivation means having no motivation to act. A person becomes amotivated when they see no connection between their effort and the reward or outcome.

If a squash player believes practice makes no difference to their results, they may stop putting in effort. This differs from training for an external reward. The amotivated player sees no worthwhile effort–reward connection at all.

Controlled motivation

Controlled motivation is extrinsic motivation: a person participates to achieve a separate outcome, rather than valuing the activity for its own sake. An athlete might attend conditioning sessions to receive a participation reward, rather than because they enjoy the sessions.

Here, the activity is a means to an end. To understand the athlete's motivation, identify the outcome they are trying to obtain by taking part.

Autonomous motivation

With Autonomous motivation, motivation is intrinsic and self-determined: the activity itself is the reason for participating. Doing it is rewarding, so the person takes part for that reason rather than only to obtain something afterwards.

Intrinsic motivation can take three forms:

• Motivation to know: enjoying learning or discovering something, such as understanding how a new squash shot works.
• Motivation to accomplish: enjoying the process of mastering a challenge, such as successfully performing that shot after practice.
• Motivation to experience stimulation: enjoying the sensations of participation, such as the excitement of a fast rally.

Players in the same sport can have very different motives. One may see no point in practising. Another may practise for a reward; a third may find learning and playing satisfying.

Associations with behaviour and emotion

Intrinsic motivation is associated with greater enjoyment, self-regulation and persistence. A player who enjoys developing their skills, for example, may organise their own practice and keep working even when improvement is slow.

Extrinsic motivation is associated with greater anxiety. When a player's participation centres on obtaining a reward, they may worry about failing to secure it.

These associations aren't guarantees about every athlete. A relationship between motivation and anxiety does not mean every extrinsically motivated athlete will be anxious.

Key terms: amotivation, controlled motivation, autonomous motivation, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, self-determined, motivation to know, motivation to accomplish, motivation to experience stimulation, enjoyment, self-regulation, persistence, anxiety.

Self-determination theory is a meta-theory: an overarching framework made up of six smaller theories, each explaining a different aspect of motivation. These mini-theories cover rewards and internalization, as well as orientations, psychological needs, goals and relationships.

Cognitive evaluation theory

Rewards can support intrinsic motivation when they communicate useful information. Cognitive evaluation theory explains this effect. An informational reward gives an athlete evidence of their capability or progress. For example, when a coach recognises a volleyball player's improved serving accuracy, that recognition can reinforce the satisfaction of mastering the skill.

Using a reward to control participation can have a different effect. The overjustification effect occurs when external rewards weaken an existing intrinsic reason for taking part, shifting motivation towards the extrinsic. A player who once enjoyed extra serving practice may start doing it mainly to collect reward tokens.

Organismic integration theory

Organismic integration theory explains how controlled motivation becomes increasingly internalized through four forms of extrinsic motivation. Through Internalization, a person takes an externally regulated reason for acting into their own reasons and values.

Causal orientations theory

What directs a person's behaviour? Causal orientations theory distinguishes three orientations:

• Autonomy orientation: action comes from interest in, and appreciation of, the activity. A player chooses a practice task because they value developing that skill.
• Control orientation: attention centres on rewards, gains and approval. A player chooses the task most likely to attract praise from the coach.
• Amotivation: this orientation involves anxiety about competence. A player doubts their ability and worries that they cannot meet the task's demands.

The same training opportunity can prompt different responses from athletes. These orientations help explain why.

Basic psychological needs theory

According to Basic psychological needs theory, psychological well-being and effective functioning depend on autonomy, competence and relatedness. The theory predicts well-being and performance based on how far these needs are satisfied or thwarted.

A coach may support the needs by giving players meaningful input and setting attainable challenges, while treating them as valued group members. Removing all meaningful choice can thwart the needs, as can repeatedly making players feel incapable or excluding them.

Goal contents theory

Goal contents theory distinguishes intrinsic goals from extrinsic goals, associating intrinsic goals with greater well-being. Personally meaningful development or connection is the focus of intrinsic goals. Extrinsic goals, by contrast, concern external rewards or recognition.

A volleyball player who aims to develop their skills and build stronger team relationships has intrinsic goals. Someone focused on gaining public recognition or a prize has extrinsic goals. The question here is what the athlete is pursuing, rather than only how strongly they want it.

Relationships motivation theory

Positive interpersonal interactions aren't merely pleasant additions to participation. Relationships motivation theory proposes that they are necessary for well-being. Supportive contact with a coach, training partner or teammate can therefore matter even when an athlete competes individually.

A player practising alone, for example, may still benefit from a coach who listens and a training partner who offers genuine encouragement. The theory focuses on positive interaction, rather than simply the number of people present.

Key terms: meta-theory, cognitive evaluation theory, informational rewards, overjustification effect, organismic integration theory, internalization, extrinsic regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, integrated regulation, causal orientations theory, autonomy orientation, control orientation, amotivation, basic psychological needs theory, autonomy, competence, relatedness, needs met or thwarted, goal contents theory, intrinsic goals, extrinsic goals, relationships motivation theory, well-being.