The Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia (1924–2000)

The Paris peace settlement

The League and the successor states

Italian and German foreign policies

Collective security and appeasement

War in Europe and Axis defeat

Civilian experiences in Britain and Germany

### Peacemaking after the First World War

The victors met at the Paris Peace Conference from January 1919. Their immediate task was to replace the defeated German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires with a stable European order.

The main peacemakers did not share the same priorities. US president Woodrow Wilson supported national self-determination, open diplomacy and a League of Nations. French premier Georges Clemenceau cared more about protecting France from another German attack. British prime minister David Lloyd George wanted to weaken Germany without destroying it, since Germany still mattered to European trade and the balance of power. Italy, meanwhile, expected the territorial rewards promised in the Treaty of London of 1915.

These aims were hard to reconcile. Strategic borders rarely followed ethnic settlement, and demands for security and compensation clashed with the language of self-determination. The defeated states and Soviet Russia were excluded from the main negotiations. This encouraged the view that the settlement had been imposed rather than negotiated.

### Versailles: Germany

The **Treaty of Versailles**, signed on 28 June 1919, changed Germany's borders and restricted its power.

- Alsace-Lorraine returned to France; Eupen-Malmedy went to Belgium, and northern Schleswig joined Denmark after a plebiscite.
- Poland received territory giving it access to the Baltic. Danzig became a Free City, while the Saar was placed under League administration for 15 years.
- Germany lost its overseas colonies, which became League mandates.
- The army was limited to 100,000 volunteers. Conscription, tanks, military aircraft and submarines were prohibited, and the Rhineland was demilitarized.
- Article 231 assigned Germany responsibility for war damage. The reparations total was fixed in 1921 at 132 billion gold marks.
- Germany was excluded initially from the League of Nations, and union with Austria was forbidden.

France gained a security barrier and the possibility of reparations, but it did not secure the permanent separation of the Rhineland from Germany. Britain gained naval and imperial advantages, yet increasingly worried that the treaty would be too difficult to enforce. Wilson secured the League, but the US Senate rejected both the treaty and American membership of the organization.

German governments condemned Versailles as a *Diktat*. Their objections focused on exclusion from the negotiations, territorial losses, disarmament, reparations and Article 231. Germany's underlying industrial strength, however, survived. Some historians therefore stress the treaty's harsh appearance, while others point to the victors' failure to impose a settlement that would permanently disable Germany.

### St Germain: Austria

The **Treaty of St Germain**, signed on 10 September 1919, formally dismantled the Austrian part of the Habsburg Empire. Austria recognized the independence or enlarged borders of Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Italy received South Tyrol, Trentino and Istria.

Austria's army was limited to 30,000, reparations were demanded, and union with Germany was prohibited. The new Austrian republic was small, economically fragile and cut off from many former imperial markets. German-speaking Austrians who supported Anschluss saw the prohibition as a denial of self-determination.

### Neuilly: Bulgaria

The **Treaty of Neuilly**, signed on 27 November 1919, required Bulgaria to cede western districts to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and to lose western Thrace to Greece, cutting off direct access to the Aegean. Southern Dobruja remained Romanian. Bulgaria's army was limited to 20,000 and reparations were imposed.

The territorial settlement created refugees and a powerful revisionist grievance. Bulgaria remained unhappy with the post-war borders and later looked to the Axis as a possible way to recover territory.

### Trianon: Hungary

The **Treaty of Trianon**, signed on 4 June 1920, confirmed the breakup of historic Hungary. Slovakia and Ruthenia entered Czechoslovakia; Transylvania went to Romania; Croatia-Slavonia and other southern lands entered the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; and Burgenland went mainly to Austria.

Hungary lost most of its pre-war territory and population. Large Magyar minorities were left outside its new borders. Its army was limited to 35,000 and reparations were imposed. Successive Hungarian governments under Regent Miklós Horthy made revision of Trianon a central foreign-policy aim. This later drew Hungary towards cooperation with Mussolini and Hitler.

### Sèvres and Lausanne: the Ottoman settlement

The **Treaty of Sèvres**, signed on 10 August 1920, attempted to partition the Ottoman Empire severely. Eastern Thrace went to Greece, Smyrna came under Greek administration, the Straits were internationalized, and Arab territories were assigned as British and French mandates. The treaty also envisaged an Armenian state and possible Kurdish autonomy.

Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal rejected the settlement. Their military victories against Greece, together with their consolidation of control in Anatolia, made Sèvres unenforceable. The sultanate was abolished in 1922.

The **Treaty of Lausanne**, signed on 24 July 1923, recognized the sovereignty and borders of the new Turkish state. Turkey recovered eastern Thrace and full control of Anatolia; the plans for independent Armenian and Kurdish territories disappeared. A compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey accompanied the settlement, causing extensive displacement and suffering.

Lausanne showed that organized military resistance could overturn part of the Paris settlement. It stood in sharp contrast to the victors' attempts to enforce the treaties on Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria.

### Overall issues and responses

The settlement created or enlarged states such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, but it did not create ethnically uniform borders. Germans, Magyars and other minorities remained under foreign rule. The new states tried to defend the treaties, while the defeated states pursued revision.

A balanced interpretation distinguishes between the treaties. Versailles restricted Germany without removing its potential power; Trianon and Neuilly created lasting territorial grievances; St Germain left a weak Austrian state; and Sèvres failed because Turkish nationalists defeated its implementation while the Allies lacked the unity and will to enforce it.

### Organization and collective security

The **League of Nations** began work in 1920 as the institutional centre of the post-war order. Its system of **collective security** was based on a simple principle: aggression against one member threatened all members and required a common response.

The Assembly included every member state, while the Council dealt with major political disputes. The Permanent Court of International Justice and various specialized bodies supported legal, humanitarian and economic cooperation. Article 16 of the Covenant allowed the League to impose economic sanctions on an aggressor, but the organization had no army of its own.

The League's authority was limited from the beginning. The United States never joined. The defeated powers were excluded at first, and the Soviet Union stayed outside until 1934. Most important decisions required unanimity, while enforcement depended on governments putting collective obligations before national interests.

### Limited successes in Europe

The League worked best when the interests of the great powers were not directly at stake.

- In the Åland Islands dispute of 1921, it recognized Finnish sovereignty while protecting the islands' Swedish culture and demilitarized status.
- In Upper Silesia in 1921, it supervised the division of territory between Germany and Poland after a plebiscite and violence.
- In the Greek–Bulgarian dispute of 1925, it secured a ceasefire and the withdrawal of Greek forces.
- Its agencies helped refugees, improved public health and worked to suppress trafficking. These efforts created forms of international cooperation that continued after the League's political decline.

These examples showed that mediation could succeed when the disputants were relatively weak and the major powers largely agreed.

### Failures and structural weaknesses

The League struggled whenever a major power was involved, or when Britain and France were unwilling to enforce its decisions. Poland kept Vilna after seizing it from Lithuania in 1920. During the Corfu Crisis of 1923, Mussolini pressured Greece, and the dispute moved from League consideration to the Conference of Ambassadors, which imposed the settlement.

Crises outside Europe also weakened European security. Japan's seizure of Manchuria in 1931 revealed how slowly the League acted. In 1935–1936, sanctions failed to stop Italy's conquest of Abyssinia. Confidence that the organization could restrain a major aggressor collapsed. Hitler could then challenge the European settlement with less fear of united enforcement.

### The wider search for security

States tried to reinforce the League through separate agreements. The 1924 Geneva Protocol proposed compulsory arbitration and stronger sanctions, but Britain refused to ratify it. The Locarno Treaties of 1925 guaranteed Germany's western frontiers and helped prepare for German entry into the League in 1926. The Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928 renounced war as an instrument of policy, yet offered no effective way to punish a state that broke the agreement.

The World Disarmament Conference opened in 1932 but collapsed amid disagreements about German equality and French security. Germany withdrew from both the conference and the League in 1933. The Soviet Union joined the League in 1934 and supported collective action, but cooperation remained weak. By the late 1930s, rearmament and bilateral alliances had replaced faith in League machinery.

### Successor states in central and eastern Europe

The defeat and territorial losses of the German Empire, together with the breakup of the Habsburg and Russian empires, created or enlarged several states. Across the region, they faced four broad problems: disputed borders, ethnic minorities, economic disruption and political instability.

| State | Principal development | Diplomatic significance |
|---|---|---|
| Poland | Combined former German, Russian and Habsburg territories; fought Soviet Russia in 1919–1921; adopted authoritarian government under Józef Piłsudski after 1926 | Feared both Germany and the Soviet Union and sought room to manoeuvre between them |
| Czechoslovakia | Developed a parliamentary system and substantial industry, but contained large German, Magyar and other minorities | Joined Romania and Yugoslavia in the Little Entente and relied heavily on France |
| Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes/Yugoslavia | Combined peoples with different political and religious traditions; King Alexander established royal dictatorship in 1929 | Defended the settlement but faced internal national divisions and pressure from Italy |
| Austria | Remained economically weak after losing its imperial hinterland; parliamentary government collapsed in the 1930s | The prohibition of Anschluss became increasingly difficult to defend |
| Hungary | Horthy's conservative regime pursued revision of Trianon | Revisionism encouraged cooperation with Italy and, later, Germany |

Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia formed the **Little Entente** between 1920 and 1921, mainly to resist Hungarian revision and a Habsburg restoration. France backed these states as part of an eastern alliance system. Its commitments, however, were weakened by distance and the lack of a strong common military structure.

The Great Depression made agricultural distress, unemployment and political polarization worse. Until 1938, Czechoslovakia remained the region's major surviving democracy. Authoritarian government, disputes over minorities and reliance on outside patrons left the successor states exposed to German economic and diplomatic pressure.

### Judging the League

One interpretation sees the League's failure as institutional. Unanimity, incomplete membership and the absence of armed force made decisive action unlikely. Another blames Britain and France, the organization's leading powers, for repeatedly putting imperial interests, domestic constraints and the avoidance of war first. The League achieved real results through its technical work and mediation between small states, but these successes could not make up for its failure to deter aggressive great powers.

### Italy: aims after 1919

Italy emerged victorious in 1918, yet many nationalists called the settlement a **mutilated victory** because it fell short of wartime expectations. Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922 and aimed to win prestige, dominate the Mediterranean, extend Italian influence in the Balkans and Africa, and secure recognition as a great power. Fascist ideology strengthened these ambitions with militarism and the goal of building a new Roman-style empire.

Italian policy was not consistently pro-German. Mussolini initially feared German expansion into Austria. He therefore tried to balance revisionist aims with cooperation with Britain and France.

### Italian policy, 1919–1934

Gabriele D'Annunzio's occupation of Fiume in 1919 exposed the strength of nationalist dissatisfaction. The Treaty of Rapallo of 1920 made Fiume a Free State. Mussolini later secured the city for Italy through the Treaty of Rome in 1924.

During the Corfu Crisis of 1923, Mussolini bombarded and occupied the Greek island after an Italian official was murdered. Italy withdrew once it had received compensation. The episode brought a limited diplomatic success, but it also exposed the weakness of League authority.

Italy strengthened its control over Albania through political and economic agreements during the 1920s. Mussolini also took part in the Locarno agreements of 1925, using them to present Italy as a responsible great power. After Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was murdered by Austrian Nazis in 1934, Mussolini moved troops towards the Brenner Pass. This temporarily deterred German intervention.

### Expansion and alignment with Germany, 1935–1941

In April 1935, Italy joined Britain and France in the Stresa Front, which opposed German treaty violations. The alignment soon broke down. Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in October 1935. Incomplete League sanctions failed to prevent the conquest, which was completed in 1936. The crisis damaged Italy's relations with Britain and France and encouraged Mussolini to turn towards Hitler.

Italy and Germany supported Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. Mussolini announced the Rome–Berlin Axis in 1936 and joined the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1937. Italy left the League that year, accepted the Anschluss in 1938 and acquired Albania in April 1939. The Pact of Steel, signed in May 1939, committed Italy and Germany to military cooperation.

When war began in September 1939, Italy remained non-belligerent because it was not militarily prepared. Mussolini entered the war in June 1940, expecting a rapid victory while France was being defeated. Italian offensives in North Africa and Greece revealed weaknesses in equipment, planning and logistics. German intervention in 1941 helped offset Italy's defeats, but it also showed that Italy occupied a subordinate position.

### How successful was Italian policy?

Mussolini gained Fiume, conquered Abyssinia and Albania, extended Italian influence in the Balkans and created the appearance of great-power status. These achievements, however, were costly and insecure. The Abyssinian war damaged relations with Britain and France, while intervention in Spain consumed resources. Dependence on Germany narrowed Italy's freedom of action, and entry into the war exposed the gap between fascist ambition and Italy's military-economic capacity.

Some interpretations stress Mussolini's opportunism, with policy changing according to immediate opportunities for prestige. Others see a more consistent ambition to build a Mediterranean empire. Both elements existed. By 1941, though, Italy had become dependent on Germany rather than an autonomous great-power leader.

### Germany under the Weimar Republic

German governments wanted to revise Versailles, restore international status and gain relief from reparations. Under Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann, from 1923 to 1929, Germany mainly pursued revision through negotiation instead of direct confrontation.

The Treaty of Rapallo with Soviet Russia in 1922 restored relations and created opportunities for economic and covert military cooperation. Following the Ruhr crisis of 1923, the Dawes Plan of 1924 reorganized reparations and helped secure American loans. The Locarno Treaties of 1925 accepted Germany's western borders, but they gave no equivalent German guarantee in the east. Germany entered the League in 1926, signed the Kellogg–Briand Pact in 1928 and gained a further revision of reparations through the Young Plan of 1929.

Stresemann restored Germany's diplomatic position and secured the early evacuation of Allied forces from the Rhineland, completed in 1930. The eastern borders and the prohibition of Anschluss, however, remained targets for peaceful revision.

### Hitler's aims

After becoming chancellor in January 1933, Adolf Hitler pursued several connected goals:

- destruction of the Versailles restrictions and restoration of German military power;
- union of Germans within an expanded Reich;
- territorial expansion, particularly **Lebensraum** in eastern Europe;
- destruction of communism and the Soviet state;
- racial reordering and German domination of Europe;
- avoidance of a lasting coalition of hostile powers until Germany was ready for war.

These aims were ideological, although Hitler often chose his timing opportunistically. He repeatedly took calculated risks after deciding that his opponents were divided or unwilling to fight.

### German policy, 1933–1939

Germany left the Disarmament Conference and the League in 1933. A non-aggression pact with Poland in 1934 reduced the immediate danger of a two-front crisis. In 1935, the Saar returned to Germany after a plebiscite. Hitler announced conscription and the Luftwaffe, while the Anglo-German Naval Agreement allowed Germany to build a fleet limited in relation to Britain's.

German troops entered the demilitarized Rhineland in March 1936. France and Britain chose not to intervene, handing Hitler a major strategic and political success. Germany then supported Franco in Spain and moved closer to Italy through the Rome–Berlin Axis and Anti-Comintern Pact.

The Anschluss of March 1938 brought Austria into Germany. During the Czechoslovak crisis, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland. The Munich Agreement of September transferred the territory to Germany without Czechoslovak participation. In March 1939, Germany occupied Prague and established control over the Czech lands. This showed that Hitler's ambitions went beyond uniting German-speaking peoples. Memel was taken from Lithuania later that month.

Britain and France guaranteed Poland. Hitler then secured the Nazi–Soviet Pact of 23 August 1939, which included secret arrangements for dividing spheres of influence in eastern Europe. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September. Britain and France declared war on 3 September.

### German policy in war, 1939–1941

Rapid victories over Poland, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and France transformed Germany's position. However, Germany's failure to defeat Britain in 1940 prevented complete victory in western Europe. German forces intervened in Yugoslavia and Greece in 1941, then invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June.

Operation Barbarossa captured vast territory but did not destroy the Soviet state before winter. By December 1941, Germany was facing Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States. Hitler's earlier diplomatic successes had produced an exceptionally powerful Reich. Expansion had also created the multi-front war that German strategy had tried to avoid.

### Comparing outcomes

Both regimes rejected the post-war order, appealed to nationalism, used military force and took advantage of British and French caution. Germany had far greater industrial and military resources, so Hitler could revise borders on a scale Mussolini could not match. Mussolini increasingly followed German initiatives, while Hitler temporarily reshaped the European balance of power. Neither regime created a sustainable diplomatic order. Each depended on continued expansion and ended in a wider war.

### Two approaches to preserving peace

**Collective security** relied on states acting together against aggression, mainly through the League of Nations. **Appeasement** meant accepting some grievances or limited demands in the hope of avoiding war and reaching a stable settlement.

Appeasement did not simply mean surrender. It grew out of memories of the First World War, military unreadiness, economic pressure and the belief that parts of the 1919 settlement needed revision. Its main weakness was that concessions could invite further demands if the recipient's aims were not limited.

### Collective security, 1919–1935

The League settled several smaller disputes. However, the Locarno agreements, regional alliances and bilateral treaties showed that governments did not regard it as reliable enough to provide their only protection. France formed alliances with Poland and the Little Entente, while Britain opposed open-ended military commitments in eastern Europe.

The failure of the Geneva Protocol in 1924, followed by the World Disarmament Conference after 1932, revealed continuing disagreement about enforcement. The Manchurian Crisis damaged the principle of collective action. The Abyssinian Crisis dealt it a decisive blow. League sanctions left out crucial measures, including closing the Suez Canal, and failed to stop the Italian victory. The Hoare–Laval proposals that accompanied the crisis suggested that Britain and France were willing to compromise with aggression.

The Stresa Front of April 1935 briefly brought Britain, France and Italy together against German rearmament. It fell apart after the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the Abyssinian Crisis. From that point, building an effective anti-German coalition became more difficult.

### British policy

Britain wanted to avoid another continental war, protect the empire and trade, and avoid commitments that went beyond its resources. Many British politicians considered some German complaints legitimate, particularly those concerning unequal disarmament and the treatment of German-speaking populations. Anti-communism also led some observers to view a stronger Germany less negatively.

The Depression left Britain economically weak, while competing imperial commitments delayed rearmament. Even so, the government increased air defence and aircraft production during the later 1930s. Appeasement therefore involved negotiation, but it also aimed to buy time for military preparation.

Neville Chamberlain, prime minister from May 1937, favoured direct diplomacy between the major powers. He thought personal negotiation could reveal Hitler's limited claims and prevent the crisis from escalating. Britain took no military action after the Anschluss. During the Sudeten crisis, Chamberlain met Hitler at Berchtesgaden and Bad Godesberg before going to the Munich Conference.

### French policy

France had suffered extensive destruction during the war and remained deeply concerned about Germany's recovery. It depended on Versailles, the League, alliances in eastern Europe and, in the end, cooperation with Britain.

Political instability at home, demographic weakness and defensive military planning restricted France's freedom of action. The Maginot Line showed the importance France placed on defence. France took no military action when Germany remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936. The move weakened French alliances and strengthened Germany's strategic position.

France was allied with Czechoslovakia, but accepted the Munich settlement after Britain refused to support a war over the Sudetenland. French policy consequently shifted from attempted containment to reluctant appeasement. French leaders largely believed that effective action without Britain was impossible.

### Soviet policy

Soviet Russia was initially isolated and hostile to the post-war order. The Treaty of Rapallo of 1922 created cooperation with Germany, while the Communist International promoted international revolutionary activity and deepened Western suspicion.

As the Nazi threat grew, the Soviet Union, under Foreign Commissar Maxim Litvinov, moved towards collective security. It joined the League in 1934 and signed mutual-assistance agreements with France and Czechoslovakia in 1935. These arrangements remained weak. The Franco-Soviet agreement contained no firm military planning, and Soviet assistance to Czechoslovakia depended on French action.

The Soviet Union helped the Republic in the Spanish Civil War, but it continued to distrust Britain and France. Being excluded from Munich strengthened the fear that the Western powers might push German expansion eastwards. Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations in 1939 broke down because of mutual suspicion, disputes over military access through Poland and the failure to reach a rapid agreement. Stalin then accepted the Nazi–Soviet Pact. This gave him time and a Soviet sphere in eastern Europe, but it also facilitated the invasion of Poland.

### Chamberlain and the Munich Crisis

Czechoslovakia was strategically valuable, industrially developed and allied to France and the Soviet Union. Its Sudeten German minority became the centre of agitation led by Konrad Henlein, whose demands Hitler encouraged.

In September 1938, Chamberlain accepted in principle the transfer of areas that were predominantly German. Hitler then raised his demands at Bad Godesberg, creating an immediate danger of war. At Munich on 29–30 September, Britain, France, Germany and Italy agreed that the Sudetenland would be transferred to Germany. Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were left out.

The settlement prevented immediate war and was welcomed by populations afraid of another conflict. It also gave Britain more time to rearm. Yet Czechoslovakia lost its frontier defences and important industrial areas. Hitler also learned that threats could secure gains without war.

Germany's occupation of Prague in March 1939 discredited the argument that Hitler wanted only national self-determination. Britain and France then guaranteed Poland and began negotiations with the Soviet Union, while Britain introduced conscription. Appeasement had been replaced by deterrence, but no effective three-power alliance existed.

### Success and failure

Collective security had limited success in minor disputes. It failed against major powers because states were unwilling to accept the risks and costs of enforcement. Appeasement delayed a general European war and gave Britain more time to prepare, but it also allowed Germany to strengthen its strategic position through the Rhineland, Austria and Czechoslovakia.

One critical interpretation sees Munich as a moral and strategic abandonment of Czechoslovakia. A more sympathetic view stresses the weakness of Britain and France in 1938, public opposition to war and uncertainty about Soviet help. The key judgement is comparative: the delay had value, but Germany also used that time and gained Czech resources without fighting.

### Causes of the Second World War

The war grew out of long-term instability as well as immediate decisions. The post-1919 settlement left revisionist grievances in place, but there was no enforcement system strong enough to contain them. The Depression weakened international cooperation and strengthened extremist movements. League failures suggested that aggression could succeed. Italian and German expansion then broke apart the balance created at Paris.

Hitler's ideology and policies were central to this process. Rearmament, territorial expansion and the pursuit of Lebensraum made further crises likely. British and French appeasement lowered immediate tensions, but it did not produce a lasting settlement. The Nazi–Soviet Pact removed the immediate danger of Soviet resistance to an attack on Poland.

Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 was the immediate cause of war. Britain and France had guaranteed Polish independence, so they declared war on Germany on 3 September. Hitler expected that they might retreat once again. Their declarations instead turned an eastern European conflict into a general European war.

Historians differ over which factors deserve the greatest emphasis. Intentionalist arguments focus on Hitler's ideological programme and calculated aggression. Structural explanations stress the weaknesses of Versailles, economic crisis, failures of collective security and the decisions taken by several powers. These interpretations complement each other. Hitler exploited a vulnerable international system, but his choices turned instability into war.

### The development of European conflict, 1939–1941

Germany and the Soviet Union defeated and partitioned Poland in September 1939. During the following Phoney War, Britain and France remained largely inactive on the western front. The Soviet Union attacked Finland in November 1939. Finland kept its independence but ceded territory in March 1940.

Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940 to secure strategic routes and bases. On 10 May, it attacked the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. German forces broke through the Ardennes and reached the Channel, cutting off Allied armies. The Dunkirk evacuation rescued a large part of the British Expeditionary Force, but France signed an armistice in June. Germany occupied northern and western France. The Vichy regime governed the unoccupied zone and much of France's colonial empire in collaboration with Germany.

Britain refused to negotiate. During the Battle of Britain, the Royal Air Force denied Germany the air superiority it needed for an invasion. The Blitz then subjected British cities to sustained bombing, but it did not force Britain to surrender.

Mussolini entered the war in June 1940. Italian defeats in North Africa and Greece meant that Germany had to provide assistance. In April 1941, German forces invaded Yugoslavia and Greece. These victories expanded Axis control, but they also created further occupation commitments.

Operation Barbarossa began on 22 June 1941. German armies won enormous encirclement battles and advanced towards Leningrad, Moscow and Ukraine. Distances, logistical difficulties, Soviet resistance and the arrival of winter prevented a decisive victory. The Soviet counter-offensive before Moscow in December ended hopes of a short eastern campaign.

Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war in December 1941. Hitler then declared war on the United States. The conflict was now global, and Germany faced a coalition with far greater combined resources.

### Formation of the wartime alliance

Britain and the Soviet Union concluded an agreement after Germany invaded the USSR. Britain and the United States had already established close cooperation through measures including Lend-Lease. In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter, which set out broad principles for the post-war order.

After the United States entered the war, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States formed the **Grand Alliance**. The alliance depended on their shared need to defeat the Axis, not on ideological agreement. Stalin repeatedly demanded a second front in western Europe. Britain and the United States initially fought in North Africa and Italy instead. Aid to the Soviet Union travelled through Arctic, Persian and Pacific routes.

At the Tehran Conference of 1943, the leaders confirmed plans for an invasion of France. Operation Overlord began on 6 June 1944, creating a major western front as Soviet armies advanced from the east. At Yalta in February 1945, the leaders discussed Germany's occupation, the United Nations, Poland and Soviet entry into the war against Japan.

The cooperation was genuine, but distrust remained. The Soviet Union carried the main burden of the land war against Germany and suspected that the Western powers were deliberately delaying the second front. Britain and the United States feared that the Soviet Union would establish political control over territories liberated by the Red Army. These disputes anticipated the post-war division, but they did not break the alliance before victory.

### Economic reasons for Allied victory

The Allies had overwhelming combined productive capacity. American industry supplied aircraft, vehicles, ships, fuel and food on a scale the Axis could not match. The Soviet Union moved major industries eastward and continued mass weapons production despite devastating losses. Britain mobilized its economy and drew on imperial and Commonwealth resources.

Germany controlled much of Europe, yet it used those resources inefficiently. Rival agencies competed with one another, standardization remained limited, and full wartime mobilization came relatively late. Germany also lacked secure access to sufficient oil. Allied bombing damaged transport, fuel production and industry, particularly later in the war.

The Axis coalition was economically divided. Italy was comparatively weak. Germany and Japan also could not combine their resources effectively because of the distance between them and Allied control of key sea routes.

### Strategic and military reasons

Germany failed to defeat Britain before invading the Soviet Union. Hitler's declaration of war on the United States then added another powerful enemy. The resulting multi-front conflict overstretched German manpower, aircraft, transport and fuel.

The Soviet victory at Stalingrad in 1942–1943 destroyed a major German army and shifted the initiative in the east. The Battle of Kursk in 1943 confirmed that the Soviet Union had taken the strategic initiative. In the west, victory in the Battle of the Atlantic allowed American troops and supplies to reach Europe. Allied campaigns in North Africa and Italy weakened the Axis before the Normandy landings opened the long-awaited western front.

Allied control of the air restricted German movement and supported ground operations. Intelligence, including the exploitation of intercepted communications, improved convoy protection and operational planning. Allied logistical systems also became increasingly capable of supplying large mechanized armies across continents and seas.

### Leadership, occupation and other factors

Hitler often imposed operational decisions, refused timely withdrawals and treated ideological priorities as military necessities. Nazi racial policies turned occupied populations into enemies and encouraged resistance. The mass murder of Jews and other groups consumed administrative and transport resources, although its central significance lies in genocide rather than merely military inefficiency.

Germany's allies had different objectives and uneven capabilities. Italy's military defeats required German intervention. Romania, Hungary and Finland pursued aims that did not always match Hitler's. By contrast, the Grand Alliance maintained strategic cooperation despite political hostility.

Allied success also depended on adaptation. Soviet commanders improved combined-arms operations. Britain developed effective air defence and anti-submarine methods, while the United States mastered large-scale amphibious warfare. German forces remained dangerous, but the Allies learned from experience while preserving the resources needed to replace losses.

### Defeat in 1945

By early 1945, Soviet forces were advancing into Germany from the east, while the Western Allies had crossed Germany's western frontier. Allied bombing and the loss of oil supplies crippled movement and production. Hitler died on 30 April, and Germany surrendered unconditionally in May 1945.

No single factor explains the outcome. Allied economic superiority made a sustained global war possible. Strategy turned that strength into pressure from several directions, while Axis decisions magnified existing weaknesses. The decisive contrast was between an Axis unable to coordinate or replace its losses and an alliance that maintained cooperation long enough to use its superior resources.

### Choice of countries

Britain and Germany make a useful comparison. Both experienced bombing, state-directed mobilization and shortages. Germany, however, also became a dictatorship at the centre of occupation, forced labour and genocide. Other countries could be chosen for this statement; these two are illustrative choices.

### Britain: bombing and displacement

In September 1939, the government began evacuating children and other vulnerable people from major cities. Evacuation separated families and revealed differences in class, health and living conditions between urban evacuees and their rural hosts. Some evacuees returned during the Phoney War, only to face renewed danger when bombing intensified.

The Blitz of 1940–1941 hit London and industrial cities such as Coventry, Liverpool and Glasgow. Later raids continued, followed in 1944–1945 by V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets. Civilians faced death, injury, homelessness and disrupted schooling, as well as repeated nights in shelters. Civil defence organizations, firefighters, medical workers and local volunteers became essential to survival.

The idea of a uniformly cheerful “Blitz spirit” needs qualification. Bombing could create solidarity and determination, but it also brought fear, exhaustion, anger, theft and resentment over unequal access to safe shelter. Experiences differed sharply according to region and social position.

### Britain: economy and daily life

Rationing distributed scarce food and consumer goods. It limited choice, but helped prevent the extreme shortages seen in parts of occupied Europe. Price controls, subsidies and government direction gave the state a larger role in everyday life.

Conscription brought men into the armed forces and directed civilians towards essential employment. Women entered factories, transport, agriculture, civil defence and the auxiliary services in large numbers. Their wartime responsibilities widened, although unequal pay and expectations of domestic labour continued.

The government controlled information through censorship and propaganda. Emergency powers allowed detention, restrictions on movement and the internment of some people categorized as enemy aliens. Parliamentary government survived, but wartime necessity narrowed civil liberties.

Full employment and state welfare measures reduced some pre-war insecurity. The effects were still unequal. Industrial workers faced long hours, coastal communities lived under invasion restrictions, and families with members serving overseas endured prolonged separation and uncertainty.

### Germany: mobilization and living standards

German civilians initially experienced victories that seemed to support the regime's claims. Rationing began in 1939, but the government tried to protect German living standards by taking food, labour and materials from occupied Europe. Civilian consumption therefore became inseparable from Nazi conquest.

As the war went on, shortages and labour demands grew. Foreign civilian workers, prisoners of war and concentration-camp prisoners were forced to work inside Germany under coercive and often lethal conditions. Their labour helped the regime maintain production while German men served in the armed forces.

After the defeat at Stalingrad, the regime called for more complete mobilization for total war. Women were drawn further into employment, even though Nazi ideology had earlier stressed motherhood and domesticity. Longer hours, declining supplies and the loss of relatives at the front weakened civilian morale.

### Germany: persecution and genocide

The category “German civilians” concealed radically unequal experiences. German Jews had already lost their rights before the war. From 1939 to 1945, deportation, forced labour and mass murder destroyed Jewish communities. Roma and Sinti, disabled people, political opponents, homosexuals and other persecuted groups also faced imprisonment or death.

The Holocaust expanded through the invasion and occupation of eastern Europe. Deportation trains transported Jews from Germany and other European countries to ghettos, shooting sites and extermination camps. State agencies, the SS, railway authorities, businesses and local collaborators all helped carry out the persecution. For the victims, war brought more than hardship: it brought systematic destruction.

German society's relationship to persecution ranged from participation and material benefit to indifference, limited assistance and resistance. Terror and censorship restricted opposition, but they do not remove individual or institutional responsibility.

### Germany: bombing, collapse and occupation

Allied bombing became more destructive from 1942. Raids on cities such as Hamburg, Berlin and Dresden caused mass death, homelessness and disruption to transport and public services. Families were separated, children were evacuated, and civilians spent longer periods in shelters.

Bombing weakened production and morale, but it did not by itself cause the regime's collapse. Nazi policing, propaganda and fear of defeat helped preserve obedience. Essential production was dispersed or moved underground, often using brutal forced labour.

In 1944–1945, the Allied advance brought refugees and evacuees into central Germany. The Soviet advance from the east caused mass flight. Civilians experienced hunger, violence and the destruction of local government. By May 1945, cities, transport systems and housing had been devastated, while millions of displaced people moved through the country.

### Comparison

Both states increased government direction, rationed consumption, mobilized women and young people, censored information and exposed urban populations to aerial attack. In both countries, social solidarity existed alongside fear, inequality and exhaustion.

The differences were fundamental. Britain retained parliamentary government and was never occupied. Its shortages remained manageable compared with Germany's final collapse. Germany's home front relied heavily on plunder and forced labour, while Nazi racial policy exposed selected civilians to exclusion, deportation and murder.

The impact changed over time as well. British danger was greatest during the invasion crisis and the Blitz, although bombing continued later. Many non-persecuted Germans were initially protected by victory and the exploitation of occupied Europe. Conditions deteriorated drastically when military defeat, bombing and invasion converged in 1944–1945.

Inter-war domestic developments in European states (1918–1939)

History

IB History develops students' understanding of significant historical events, themes, and interpretations across different periods and regions.Students learn to analyze historical sources critically, understand complex historical narratives, and develop sophisticated historical thinking skills.

HL4.15 Diplomacy in Europe (1919–1945)

Question 1

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Question 2

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Question 3

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Question 4

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