Question 1
A community-managed woodland contains standing trees, soil, wildlife and streams. It provides harvested timber and reduces runoff into a nearby settlement.
Distinguish between natural capital and natural income.
[2]
Identify one natural-income service provided by the woodland.
[1]
Question 2
Figure 1 shows annual goods and services obtained from a community-managed mangrove ecosystem.
Identify one natural-income good and one natural-income service shown in Figure 1.
[2]
Calculate the proposed annual wood harvest as a percentage of the living biomass stock. Show your working.
[1]
Explain how increasing wood harvesting could reduce two other forms of natural income shown in Figure 1.
[3]
Question 3
Figure 1 shows nutrient-rich runoff passing from farmland through a reed-bed buffer zone before entering a river.
Identify one process shown in Figure 1 that removes material from the runoff.
[1]
Explain how the reed-bed buffer zone can reduce the risk of eutrophication in the river.
[3]
Question 4
A mountain is used for customary ceremonies, attracts visitors because of its scenery and contains an endemic plant with no known human use.
Identify the type of value represented by the customary ceremonies.
[1]
Identify the type of value represented by appreciation of the mountain's scenery.
[1]
Distinguish between the intrinsic value of the endemic plant and its economic value.
[2]
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Question 5
A semi-arid city obtains water from an aquifer. Average annual recharge is estimated to be . Figure 2 shows annual abstraction and the depth of the water table.
Annual groundwater abstraction, average recharge and water-table depth, 2015–2024.
| Year | Abstraction / | Average recharge / | Water-table depth / |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 34 | 42 | 18 |
| 2016 | 36 | 42 | 18.5 |
| 2017 | 39 | 42 | 19.3 |
| 2018 | 42 | 42 | 20 |
| 2019 | 44 | 42 | 21.2 |
| 2020 | 46 | 42 | 23.1 |
| 2021 | 49 | 42 | 25 |
| 2022 | 51 | 42 | 26.7 |
| 2023 | 54 | 42 | 28.8 |
| 2024 | 56 | 42 | 31 |
Calculate the amount by which abstraction exceeded recharge in 2024.
[2]
Describe the relationship between groundwater abstraction and water-table depth shown in Figure 2.
[2]
Explain why the aquifer is a renewable resource but its pattern of use shown in Figure 2 is unsustainable.
[3]
Question 6
A wetland and reed-bed buffer zone were restored between farmland and a river. Figure 3 compares conditions before and after restoration.
Figure 3: Nitrate and river-discharge measurements before and after restoration.
| Measurement | Before restoration | After restoration |
|---|---|---|
| Nitrate concentration entering buffer / mg L | 8.0 | 8.2 |
| Nitrate concentration leaving buffer / mg L | 7.4 | 3.1 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 12 | 12 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 20 | 14 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 35 | 18 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 52 | 24 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 68 | 32 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 76 | 39 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 69 | 44 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 58 | 47 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 45 | 49 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 36 | 46 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 29 | 40 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 23 | 34 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 19 | 29 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 16 | 25 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 14 | 21 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 13 | 18 |
| River discharge at h / m s | 12 | 16 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in nitrate concentration between water entering and leaving the buffer zone after restoration.
[2]
Describe two changes in the river hydrograph following restoration.
[2]
Suggest how the restored wetland and reed-bed buffer zone produced the changes shown in both panels of Figure 3.
[3]
Question 7
Members of a school community rated the importance of benefits provided by a nearby woodland on a scale from 1, meaning not important, to 5, meaning very important. Figure 4 shows the median ratings.
Identify the woodland benefit given the highest median rating by students.
[1]
Distinguish between the cultural value and intrinsic value represented in Figure 4.
[2]
Analyse what Figure 4 suggests about using this survey to make a woodland-management decision.
[3]
Question 8
A coastal fish population adds approximately 12 000 mature fish each year through recruitment. The annual harvest has increased to 18 000 mature fish.
Explain why this renewable resource is being used unsustainably.
[3]
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Question 9
Nitrogen-rich seabird guano was once widely traded as agricultural fertilizer. Its economic value declined after industrially manufactured fertilizers became widely available.
State what is meant by the value of natural capital being dynamic.
[1]
Explain the change in the economic value of guano described in the stimulus.
[3]
Question 10
A national programme aims to restore degraded upland forests and improve drinking-water quality in settlements downstream. Government agencies, community forest groups and an international development fund participate in the programme.
Identify two Sustainable Development Goals directly supported by this programme.
[2]
Outline one strength and one limitation of using the Sustainable Development Goals as a framework for the programme.
[2]
Question 11
The Kembara floodplain wetland lies upstream of a rapidly growing town. Part of the wetland was drained for vegetable production in 2016. Following severe flooding and declining river-water quality, the local authority restored part of the wetland in 2021.
Mean concentrations and observed ranges at downstream point before and after wetland restoration.
| Variable | Unit | 2020 mean | 2020 range | 2023 mean | 2023 range |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nitrate | 8.4 | 4.9 | |||
| Phosphate | 0.62 | 0.28 | |||
| Suspended sediment | 74 | 39 |
State one component of natural capital represented by the Kembara wetland.
[1]
Distinguish between one natural-income good and one natural-income service that could be provided by this wetland.
[2]
Calculate the percentage decrease in peak river discharge following wetland restoration.
[2]
Explain how wetland restoration could have caused the changes shown in Figures 1(b) and 1(c).
[4]
Evaluate whether further agricultural land should be converted to wetland in the Kembara floodplain.
[5]
Question 12
A government introduced a fossil-fuel levy and used part of the revenue to improve public transport and provide targeted household rebates. Figure 5 shows changes two years after implementation.
Figure 5. Household impacts two years after the fossil-fuel levy.
| Household group | Fuel use before / GJ yr | Fuel use after / GJ yr | Public-transport journeys / % change | Levy cost before rebates / % income | Levy cost after rebates / % income |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Metropolitan | 44 | 34 | 28 | — | — |
| Small town | 52 | 45 | 9 | — | — |
| Remote rural | 61 | 57 | 1 | — | — |
| Low-income | — | — | — | 3.8 | 1.4 |
| Middle-income | — | — | — | 1.9 | 1.7 |
| High-income | — | — | — | 0.8 | 0.8 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in annual fossil-fuel use by metropolitan households.
[2]
Analyse one reason for the different changes in fossil-fuel use among the three settlement types.
[2]
Evaluate the effectiveness and fairness of the levy-and-rebate strategy using Figure 5.
[3]
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Question 13
Bamboo is biologically renewable. Figure 7 shows environmental indicators for two supply chains producing the same quantity of bamboo flooring.
Environmental indicators for supply chains producing one tonne of finished bamboo flooring.
| Life-cycle stage | Supply chain A | Supply chain B |
|---|---|---|
| Bamboo regrowth period | ||
| Land preparation | natural habitat cleared | natural habitat cleared |
| Transport | by diesel truck and ship | mainly by electric rail |
| Processing energy | ; from coal | ; from renewable electricity |
| Wastewater treatment | untreated wastewater discharged | untreated wastewater discharged |
| Offcuts recovered | usable offcuts recovered | usable offcuts recovered |
State the evidence from Figure 7 that bamboo itself is a renewable resource.
[1]
Compare the transport and processing stages of the two supply chains.
[2]
Analyse why Supply chain A may be unsustainable even though bamboo is renewable.
[4]
Question 14
A volcanic island is considering expanding geothermal district heating to replace imported fuel oil. The island has accessible geothermal fields, cold winters, engineering expertise and an existing hot-water pipe network. Some residents are concerned about landscape disturbance and gas emissions.
Explain two factors affecting the island's choice to expand geothermal heating.
[4]
Question 15
A government introduces a levy on domestic fossil-fuel use. Revenue from the levy is used to improve rural bus services and provide targeted rebates to low-income households.
Explain how the levy may reduce the use of fossil-fuel natural capital.
[2]
Outline why the bus investment and targeted rebates may improve the fairness of this intervention.
[2]
Question 16
Figure 2 summarizes part of an environmental impact assessment process for a proposed reservoir.
Identify stages X and Y in Figure 2.
[2]
Explain why an environmental impact assessment should include stage Y rather than end when construction is completed.
[2]
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Question 17
A coastal resort is proposed beside a fishing village, a mangrove and a beach used by nesting turtles.
Outline two parameters that should be measured in a baseline study for the proposed resort.
[2]
Outline two benefits of making the environmental impact assessment public before a decision is made.
[2]
Question 18
Bamboo can regrow after harvesting and is used to manufacture flooring. A supply chain clears diverse forest for bamboo monoculture, applies fertilizers, transports stems over long distances and powers processing kilns with coal.
State why bamboo may be classified as a renewable resource.
[1]
Explain why the bamboo flooring supply chain may nevertheless be unsustainable.
[3]
Question 19
Silver hake are harvested from the Maruva continental shelf. Managers estimate that the population can regenerate by approximately 18% each year when its biomass exceeds 40 thousand tonnes. A minimum biomass of 40 thousand tonnes is therefore treated as a precautionary ecological limit. The controls described in the fact file took effect at the end of 2021, after the 2021 annual catch had been recorded.
Identify the first year in which adult silver-hake biomass fell below the precautionary ecological limit.
[1]
Calculate the percentage decrease in adult silver-hake biomass between 2014 and 2022.
[2]
Outline evidence that the fishery was being used unsustainably before the controls took effect.
[3]
Explain why a biologically renewable fish population may be treated as a non-renewable resource in practice.
[3]
Discuss whether the controls introduced at the end of 2021 are sufficient to make the Maruva fishery sustainable.
[5]
Question 20
A regional organization compared water security in the city-state of Lydora and the predominantly rural country of Menaku. Lydora has limited natural freshwater, whereas Menaku receives more total rainfall but has less developed supply infrastructure.
State the largest source of municipal water for each society in 2023.
[2]
Calculate the percentage-point difference between Lydora and Menaku in access to safely managed drinking water.
[1]
Compare and contrast the water security of Lydora and Menaku.
[4]
Explain how factors other than the physical availability of water contribute to the contrast in water security.
[3]
Evaluate the long-term water-security strategy of Lydora.
[5]
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Question 21
The island of Vardur currently imports diesel for electricity generation. Its government is considering development of the Hekla geothermal field, located near farms, a culturally important hot-spring area and a protected upland ecosystem.
Comparison of diesel and geothermal electricity generation on Vardur.
| Technology | Estimated generation cost / USD kWh | Life-cycle GHG emissions / g kWh | Direct employment / jobs | Dependable generating capacity / MW |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diesel | 0.24 | 710 | 90 | 42 |
| Geothermal | 0.11 | 55 | 170 | 38 |
Identify the proposed well site that has the shortest connection to the existing electricity grid.
[1]
Calculate the percentage reduction in estimated generation cost if diesel electricity is replaced by geothermal electricity.
[2]
Outline two reasons why the value of the geothermal field differs among stakeholders.
[2]
Explain why geothermal energy should not automatically be regarded as sustainable.
[3]
Discuss whether and where the Hekla geothermal development should proceed.
[6]
Question 22
An environmental impact assessment is being prepared for a proposed coastal wind-energy development. Figure 6(a) shows the proposed layout and Figure 6(b) summarizes selected baseline data.
Figure 6(b): Selected baseline-study data for the proposed coastal wind-energy development.
| Baseline parameter | Result | Survey coverage / period |
|---|---|---|
| Breeding seabird nests | Spring: 420; autumn: 35 | One spring and one autumn only |
| Seasonal wetland area | Wet season: 24 ha; dry season: 9 ha | One spring and one autumn only |
| Village background noise | Night: 32 dB; daytime: 46 dB | One spring and one autumn only |
| Average household unemployment | 14% | Current baseline |
| Cultural-headland visits | Summer: 310 visits per month; winter: 90 visits per month | One summer and one winter only |
| Annual district electricity demand | 180 GWh per year | Current demand |
| Projected wind-farm output | 140 GWh per year | Projected annual generation |
Identify two environmental or social features that could be directly affected by the proposed access road or turbine layout.
[2]
Suggest three ways in which the baseline study should be improved before a development decision is made.
[3]
Evaluate whether the evidence provided is sufficient to approve the development without modification.
[3]
Question 23
Peatlands contain accumulated organic matter, water and living organisms. They may provide harvested products and recreation while regulating water flow and storing carbon.
Distinguish between natural capital and natural income, referring to both goods and services.
[4]
Explain how drainage and degradation of a peatland may reduce the natural income it provides.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the usefulness of natural-capital valuation in decisions about peatland or wetland management.
[9]
Question 24
Country R imports most of the processed battery minerals used by its electricity-storage industry. A disruption to overseas processing causes prices to rise and factories to reduce production.
Explain one way this resource insecurity could hinder socio-economic development in Country R.
[2]
Outline two strategies that could increase Country R's resource security.
[2]
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Question 25
Oil-palm fruit is biologically renewable because palms repeatedly produce new crops. The Sembala province has expanded palm-oil production rapidly, but environmental and social impacts occur throughout the supply chain.
Figure 5(b): plantation area and crude palm-oil production in Sembala province, 2015–2023.
| Year | Mineral-soil area / thousand ha | Drained peatland area / thousand ha | CPO production / million tonnes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 155 | 25 | 0.62 |
| 2016 | 165 | 29 | 0.68 |
| 2017 | 174 | 34 | 0.75 |
| 2018 | 184 | 39 | 0.82 |
| 2019 | 194 | 45 | 0.89 |
| 2020 | 205 | 51 | 0.96 |
| 2021 | 216 | 58 | 1.03 |
| 2022 | 227 | 65 | 1.11 |
| 2023 | 238 | 72 | 1.18 |
Comparison of processing indicators at uncertified and certified palm-oil mills in Sembala province.
| Processing indicator | Wastewater BOD at discharge / | Certified mills |
|---|---|---|
| Methane captured from wastewater / % | 4 | 68 |
| Wastewater BOD at discharge / | 240 | 48 |
| Traceable fruit supply / % | 31 | 91 |
| Mean processing cost / USD | 46 | 53 |
Calculate the percentage increase in total plantation area between 2015 and 2023.
[2]
Distinguish between the renewability of palm fruit and the sustainability of the palm-oil supply chain.
[3]
Analyse two environmental impacts associated with the expansion shown in Figure 5(b).
[4]
Explain how two measures used by certified mills could reduce the impacts of palm-oil processing.
[3]
Evaluate the use of certification as a strategy for sustainable palm-oil management in Sembala province.
[4]
Question 26
A company proposes a 600-room resort at Cala Azul, a low-lying coast with seagrass habitat, nesting beaches and a fishing village. An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is being prepared before a development decision is made.
Baseline environmental and social conditions at Cala Azul by season.
| Freshwater-well recharge / | Community abstraction / | Projected resort demand / |
|---|---|---|
| Freshwater-well recharge / | 5200 | 2100 |
| Community abstraction / | 1800 | 1750 |
| Projected resort demand / | 1400 | 1400 |
| Seagrass cover / % | 74 | 71 |
| Mean nesting-female count | 86 | N/A |
| Village fishing income / USD million | 1.9 | 2.6 |
Define a baseline study in the context of an EIA.
[2]
Calculate the dry-season water surplus or deficit if the resort is built and both community and resort demand are met.
[2]
Suggest three additional parameters that should be measured or predicted by the EIA.
[3]
Explain how post-completion auditing and monitoring could improve the sustainability of the resort.
[3]
Evaluate the merits of engaging all relevant stakeholders before deciding whether the resort should proceed.
[6]
Question 27
The Republic of Norland is expanding battery manufacture but imports all lithium compounds and refined cobalt. Its government is considering strategies to improve mineral security while reducing environmental impacts.
Comparison of proposed mineral-security strategies for Norland.
| Strategy | Domestic supply in 2040 / % of Norland mineral demand | Implementation cost / USD billion | Lifecycle GHG change relative to current imported supply / % | Key condition or impact |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Recycling | 22 | 2.4 | -18 | Requires collection infrastructure |
| Open domestic mine | 18 | 6.8 | +12 | Overlaps a watershed |
| Material-efficient design | 0 | 3.1 | -25 | Reduces mineral demand |
| Supplier diversification | 0 | 1.6 | -3 | No supplier provides more than 35% |
Calculate the percentage reduction in projected 2040 mineral demand resulting from material-efficient battery technology.
[2]
Outline two reasons why Norland's present mineral supply may be insecure.
[2]
Explain how mineral insecurity could hinder socio-economic development in Norland.
[3]
Analyse one environmental trade-off associated with opening a domestic mine.
[3]
Discuss the strategy or combination of strategies Norland should adopt to increase mineral security sustainably.
[5]
Question 28
Norland's present annual demand for lithium chemicals is , all of which it currently imports for battery manufacture. Figure 8(a) shows the origin of its imports. Figure 8(b) compares three proposed strategies for increasing lithium security. For part (c), assume the percentages in Figure 8(b) are measured against present annual demand, can be added when strategies are combined, and that implementation can occur in parallel.
Norland's lithium-chemical imports by origin.
| Origin | Share of total imports / % |
|---|---|
| Aridia | 62 |
| Belvar | 21 |
| Candon | 9 |
| Other countries | 8 |
Comparison of proposed strategies to increase lithium security in Norland.
| Strategy | Effect on present demand | Implementation time / years | Public cost / billion currency units | Habitat loss / ha | Key limitation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demand efficiency | Reduces demand by | 2 | 0.6 | 20 | Depends on smaller batteries and longer product life |
| Domestic mine | Adds supply equal to | 8 | 2.4 | 1600 | Domestic ore requires overseas refining |
| Battery recycling | Supplies | 4 | 1.1 | 70 | Limited by collection of used batteries |
Calculate the annual mass of lithium chemicals imported from Aridia.
[2]
Analyse two reasons why Norland remains resource-insecure even if the domestic mine is developed.
[3]
Evaluate which combination of strategies would most effectively increase Norland's long-term lithium security.
[3]
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Question 29
Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable resources, and explain why renewability is conditional.
[4]
Explain how monitoring and adaptive management can maintain the sustainable use of a renewable resource.
[7]
Using named examples, to what extent can human societies use renewable natural resources sustainably?
[9]
Question 30
Reliable access to water depends on both natural water availability and the capacity of society to capture, treat and distribute it.
Outline four characteristics of water security.
[4]
Explain why water security differs between Singapore and Ethiopia.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the relative importance of technology and natural water availability in achieving long-term water security.
[9]
Question 31
Distinguish between a natural-resource management strategy and a government intervention, using one example of each.
[4]
Explain how a combination of government interventions could reduce fossil-fuel use while limiting adverse social effects.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the roles of governments and civil society in changing society's use of fossil-fuel natural capital.
[9]
Question 32
Bluecrest tuna migrate through the waters of four countries. High market prices and improvements in locating technology increased fishing pressure. In 2020, the countries adopted a regional recovery plan linked to sustainable resource management.
Estimated spawning-stock biomass, average landed price, and recovery threshold for Bluecrest tuna, 2012–2024.
| Year | Spawning-stock biomass / thousand tonnes | Average landed price / USD per kg | Recovery threshold / thousand tonnes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2012 | 420 | 7.5 | 240 |
| 2013 | 390 | 8.0 | 240 |
| 2014 | 350 | 8.8 | 240 |
| 2015 | 305 | 9.6 | 240 |
| 2016 | 260 | 11.2 | 240 |
| 2017 | 220 | 13.5 | 240 |
| 2018 | 185 | 16.0 | 240 |
| 2019 | 160 | 18.5 | 240 |
| 2020 | 150 | 20.0 | 240 |
| 2021 | 158 | 19.2 | 240 |
| 2022 | 174 | 18.0 | 240 |
| 2023 | 198 | 17.1 | 240 |
| 2024 | 225 | 16.4 | 240 |
Describe the relationship between spawning-stock biomass and average landed price from 2012 to 2020.
[2]
Calculate the estimated total catch in 2024, including unreported catch.
[2]
Explain why short-term economic interests may have accelerated depletion of the tuna stock before 2020.
[3]
Analyse evidence that the recovery plan has had both successes and limitations.
[4]
Evaluate whether the regional recovery plan provides an effective framework for sustainable management of the Bluecrest tuna resource.
[5]
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Question 33
A company proposes a rare-earth mineral processing facility beside an agricultural river valley. The facility could provide employment and domestically processed materials for renewable-energy technologies, but it would require large quantities of water and would produce chemically contaminated residues.
Outline four features of an environmental impact assessment (EIA).
[4]
Explain how baseline studies and continued monitoring could improve the sustainability of the proposed facility.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the extent to which publishing an EIA and engaging all relevant stakeholders can ensure sustainable development decisions.
[9]
Question 34
Timber from a naturally regenerating forest may be classified as renewable. However, environmental and social impacts can occur during forest access, harvesting, transport and processing.
Explain why timber may be renewable while a timber supply chain is unsustainable.
[4]
Analyse how short-term economic interests may reduce the long-term natural income obtained from a forest.
[7]
Using named examples, to what extent can the economic use of forests be reconciled with the long-term maintenance of natural capital?
[9]
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