Question 1
The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 1.
Identify regions X and Y.
[2]
State one role of region Y in the biosphere.
[1]
Question 2
The figure shows the atmospheric transmission of three categories of ultraviolet radiation.
Identify the category of ultraviolet radiation with the greatest atmospheric absorption.
[1]
Calculate the percentage reduction in UVB radiation between the top of the atmosphere and Earth's surface.
[2]
Explain why the atmospheric absorption pattern shown in Figure 1 is important to living organisms.
[3]
Question 3
Figure 2 shows the transmission of ultraviolet radiation through the atmosphere.
Identify the category of ultraviolet radiation with the shortest wavelength.
[1]
Describe the absorption of UVB and UVC by the atmosphere.
[2]
Explain why UVC is more dangerous to organisms than UVA when exposure occurs.
[1]
Question 4
A systems diagram of the stratospheric ozone store is shown in Figure 3.
State the relationship between the rates of ozone formation and destruction at steady-state equilibrium.
[1]
Explain why steady-state equilibrium does not mean that individual ozone molecules remain unchanged.
[2]
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Question 5
Phytoplankton cultures were exposed to different intensities of UVB radiation for the same period. The mean photosynthetic rate and frequency of DNA damage were measured.
Figure 2. Mean responses of phytoplankton cultures after equal-duration UVB exposures. Culture temperature, nutrient concentration and exposure duration were controlled. Values are mean ± uncertainty.
| UVB exposure / relative units | Mean photosynthetic rate / % of control | DNA-damage frequency / relative units |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | ||
| 2 | ||
| 4 | ||
| 6 | ||
| 8 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in mean photosynthetic rate between UVB exposures of 0 and 8 relative units.
[2]
Describe the relationships shown between UVB exposure and the two measured responses.
[2]
Suggest how the responses shown could affect an aquatic ecosystem.
[3]
Question 6
The systems diagram represents stratospheric ozone before and after the introduction of an ozone-depleting substance (ODS).
State the evidence that Stage A represents a steady-state equilibrium.
[1]
Calculate the difference between the total rate of ozone destruction and the rate of ozone formation in Stage B.
[2]
Explain the change in the ozone storage index shown after the ODS is introduced.
[3]
Question 7
Explain how increased UVB exposure may reduce the productivity of an aquatic food web.
[4]
Question 8
Explain how the release of ozone-depleting substances can change the steady-state equilibrium of stratospheric ozone.
[3]
Distinguish ozone depletion from global warming.
[1]
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Question 9
Distinguish the principal atmospheric impacts of CFC and HFC refrigerants.
[2]
Outline the role of the Kigali Amendment.
[2]
Question 10
Scientists monitored stratospheric ozone, surface UVB irradiance and phytoplankton productivity at Lake Qhapaq, a high-altitude lake in the Andes. Monthly ozone and UVB measurements are shown in Figure 1(a). Figure 1(b) shows results from floating enclosures studied during November. The enclosures received either ambient sunlight or sunlight filtered to remove most UVB radiation.
Monthly mean total-column ozone and midday surface UVB irradiance at Lake Qhapaq, with measurement uncertainty.
| Month | Ozone / DU | Ozone uncertainty / DU | UVB irradiance / W m | UVB uncertainty / W m |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| January | 318 | 0.46 | ||
| February | 322 | 0.43 | ||
| March | 328 | 0.40 | ||
| April | 330 | 0.38 | ||
| May | 326 | 0.41 | ||
| June | 321 | 0.45 | ||
| July | 316 | 0.50 | ||
| August | 311 | 0.56 | ||
| September | 305 | 0.62 | ||
| October | 263 | 0.91 | ||
| November | 225 | 1.18 | ||
| December | 244 | 1.02 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in total-column ozone from September to November.
[2]
Describe the relationship between total-column ozone and surface UVB irradiance from September to November.
[2]
Calculate the percentage by which mean gross primary productivity was lower under ambient sunlight than under UVB-filtered sunlight.
[2]
Explain how reduced stratospheric ozone could affect the lake food web.
[3]
Evaluate the evidence that UVB radiation caused the difference in phytoplankton productivity shown in Figure 1(b).
[5]
Question 11
A public-health agency investigated ultraviolet exposure in four coastal provinces of the fictional country of Lydora. Figure 2(a) shows mean annual biologically effective UV exposure and the incidence of two health conditions. Figure 2(b) gives contextual information about the provinces.
Figure 2(a): Mean annual biologically effective UV exposure and age-standardized health-condition incidence in four coastal provinces of Lydora.
| Province | Mean annual biologically effective UV exposure / kJ m | Age-standardized skin-cancer incidence / cases per 100 000 people | Age-standardized cataract incidence / cases per 100 000 people |
|---|---|---|---|
| Northbay | 410 | 18 | 210 |
| Estara | 520 | 25 | 235 |
| Solmar | 690 | 39 | 310 |
| Cape Luma | 810 | 52 | 355 |
Identify the province with the highest incidence of both skin cancer and cataracts.
[1]
Calculate the percentage increase in skin-cancer incidence from Northbay to Cape Luma.
[2]
Describe the relationship between UV exposure and the two health conditions.
[3]
Explain how UV radiation may cause each of the health conditions shown.
[3]
Evaluate whether the data demonstrate that differences in UV exposure caused the differences in health outcomes between provinces.
[4]
Question 12
The figure shows the release of chlorine from a CFC and its role in stratospheric ozone destruction.
Identify the radical that is regenerated in the reaction cycle.
[1]
Determine the net chemical equation for the two reactions in the catalytic cycle.
[2]
Explain why a relatively small concentration of CFCs can cause substantial ozone depletion.
[3]
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Question 13
Figure 4 shows changes in the maximum Antarctic spring ozone-hole area. The Montreal Protocol entered into force in 1989.
Describe the long-term trend in the ozone-hole area between 2000 and 2024.
[2]
Explain how the data support the conclusion that intervention has prevented continued movement towards the planetary boundary for stratospheric ozone depletion.
[2]
Question 14
State the two chemical equations by which ultraviolet radiation and atomic oxygen produce stratospheric ozone from molecular oxygen.
[2]
State the equation for the UV-driven destruction of ozone and the condition required for ozone concentration to remain at steady state.
[2]
Question 15
Figure 6 shows the life cycle of refrigerant in cooling equipment.
Identify two stages at which refrigerant may be released into the atmosphere.
[2]
Explain why controlled refrigerant recovery is preferable to sending redundant appliances directly to landfill.
[2]
Question 16
The island state of Pelagos joined the Montreal Protocol in 1994. It introduced import quotas for ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), training for refrigeration technicians and a programme to recover refrigerants from old equipment. Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show changes associated with these measures.
Annual programme indicators in Pelagos, 1995–2025.
| Year | Technicians certified | Stratospheric chlorine-loading index () |
|---|---|---|
| 1995 | 15 | 100.0 |
| 1996 | 23 | 101.2 |
| 1997 | 34 | 101.0 |
| 1998 | 49 | 103.0 |
| 1999 | 68 | 102.7 |
| 2000 | 92 | 105.1 |
| 2001 | 122 | 104.6 |
| 2002 | 160 | 107.1 |
| 2003 | 207 | 106.8 |
| 2004 | 265 | 109.5 |
| 2005 | 335 | 112.0 |
| 2006 | 417 | 110.9 |
| 2007 | 510 | 111.3 |
| 2008 | 612 | 109.7 |
| 2009 | 722 | 110.2 |
| 2010 | 838 | 108.6 |
| 2011 | 950 | 109.0 |
| 2012 | 1052 | 107.5 |
| 2013 | 1138 | 107.9 |
| 2014 | 1198 | 105.9 |
| 2015 | 1230 | 106.2 |
| 2016 | 1244 | 104.7 |
| 2017 | 1251 | 105.1 |
| 2018 | 1255 | 103.2 |
| 2019 | 1257 | 103.8 |
| 2020 | 1258 | 101.5 |
| 2021 | 1259 | 101.9 |
| 2022 | 1260 | 99.2 |
| 2023 | 1260 | 99.8 |
| 2024 | 1260 | 97.5 |
| 2025 | 1260 | 96.0 |
Calculate the total ODS release in Pelagos in 1995 and in 2025.
[2]
Describe how the sources of ODS releases changed between 1995 and 2025.
[3]
Explain why stratospheric chlorine loading continued to increase until 2005 despite controls introduced in the 1990s.
[3]
Suggest two reasons why international cooperation was necessary to manage ODS emissions.
[2]
Evaluate the effectiveness of the ODS-management programme in Pelagos.
[5]
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Question 17
Satellite observations were used to compare total-column ozone in different parts of the world. Figure 4(a) shows global ozone during southern polar spring in 2001 and 2023. Figure 4(b) shows long-term ozone indices for three latitude bands. An index of 100 represents the 1980 mean.
Identify the latitude band showing the greatest reduction in its ozone index between 1980 and 2000.
[1]
Calculate the percentage increase in the Antarctic spring ozone index from 2000 to 2024.
[2]
Compare and contrast the changes in ozone for the three latitude bands.
[3]
Explain why the term “ozone hole” does not mean a literal opening in the atmosphere.
[3]
Evaluate whether the figures support the conclusion that the planetary boundary for stratospheric ozone depletion is being protected.
[5]
Question 18
The Montreal Protocol introduced controls on ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). The figure compares global ODS consumption with Antarctic spring total-column ozone. Lower total-column ozone values indicate more severe depletion.
Global controlled-ODS consumption and Antarctic spring minimum total-column ozone, 1987–2024.
| Year | Controlled ODS / million tonnes | Minimum ozone / DU | Smoothed ozone / DU |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1987 | 1.25 | 130 | 130 |
| 1988 | 1.15 | 126 | 132 |
| 1989 | 1.05 | 121 | 133 |
| 1990 | 0.95 | 118 | 135 |
| 1991 | 0.84 | 116 | 136 |
| 1992 | 0.75 | 112 | 138 |
| 1993 | 0.67 | 120 | 139 |
| 1994 | 0.60 | 125 | 141 |
| 1995 | 0.54 | 132 | 142 |
| 1996 | 0.49 | 137 | 144 |
| 1997 | 0.44 | 141 | 145 |
| 1998 | 0.40 | 145 | 147 |
| 1999 | 0.37 | 148 | 149 |
| 2000 | 0.35 | 150 | 150 |
| 2001 | 0.31 | 143 | 152 |
| 2002 | 0.28 | 158 | 153 |
| 2003 | 0.25 | 151 | 155 |
| 2004 | 0.22 | 146 | 157 |
| 2005 | 0.19 | 154 | 158 |
| 2006 | 0.16 | 160 | 160 |
| 2007 | 0.14 | 155 | 162 |
| 2008 | 0.12 | 164 | 164 |
| 2009 | 0.10 | 166 | 166 |
| 2010 | 0.08 | 170 | 168 |
| 2011 | 0.07 | 162 | 170 |
| 2012 | 0.06 | 174 | 172 |
| 2013 | 0.05 | 177 | 174 |
| 2014 | 0.04 | 169 | 176 |
| 2015 | 0.035 | 181 | 178 |
| 2016 | 0.03 | 176 | 180 |
| 2017 | 0.028 | 184 | 181 |
| 2018 | 0.025 | 180 | 183 |
| 2019 | 0.022 | 187 | 184 |
| 2020 | 0.02 | 190 | 185 |
| 2021 | 0.018 | 186 | 186 |
| 2022 | 0.015 | 192 | 187 |
| 2023 | 0.012 | 181 | 188 |
| 2024 | 0.01 | 165 | 188 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in global controlled-ODS consumption between 1987 and 2020.
[2]
Describe the evidence for a delayed response of stratospheric ozone to the reduction in ODS consumption.
[2]
Evaluate the extent to which the supplied data support the claim that international controls have prevented the planetary boundary for stratospheric ozone depletion from being crossed, noting any limitations of the data.
[4]
Question 19
The figure shows seasonal conditions in the Antarctic stratosphere from June to November. Polar stratospheric cloud (PSC) area is an index of the availability of active reaction surfaces.
Figure 6. Seasonal conditions in the Antarctic stratosphere, June–November.
| Month | Temperature / | PSC area index | Sunlight / of Nov. | Ozone / DU | Polar vortex |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| June | -85 | 8 | 0 | 300 | Strong isolation |
| July | -90 | 14 | 0 | 295 | Strong isolation |
| August | -88 | 12 | 30 | 220 | Strong isolation |
| September | -78 | 5 | 70 | 130 | Strong isolation |
| October | -65 | 0 | 95 | 180 | Breakdown begins |
| November | -55 | 0 | 100 | 240 | Broken down |
Identify the month with the lowest mean total-column ozone.
[1]
Describe two changes in stratospheric conditions between July and September.
[2]
Explain the seasonal decrease and subsequent recovery in total-column ozone shown in Figure 6.
[4]
Suggest how a major volcanic eruption could increase the severity of polar ozone depletion.
[1]
Question 20
Four refrigerants are being considered for otherwise identical cooling units. Each unit consumes 900 kWh of electricity per year. The electricity supply emits 0.45 kg -equivalent per kWh.
Comparison of ozone-depletion potential, global-warming potential and estimated leakage for four refrigerants.
| Refrigerant | Chemical category | ODP | GWP (100-year) | Leakage / kg per year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| CFC-12 | CFC | 1.0 | 10 900 | 0.12 |
| HFC-134a | HFC | 0 | 1430 | 0.20 |
| Propane | Hydrocarbon | 0 | 3 | 0.08 |
| Natural refrigerant | 0 | 1 | 0.25 | |
| Formula | Direct emissions / kg -equivalent per year | = | leakage mass GWP | For each refrigerant |
Calculate the annual direct greenhouse-gas emissions caused by leakage of HFC-134a from one cooling unit.
[2]
Calculate the total annual greenhouse-gas emissions associated with the HFC-134a cooling unit, including electricity consumption and refrigerant leakage.
[2]
Explain why replacing CFC-12 with HFC-134a addresses one environmental issue but contributes to another.
[2]
Evaluate the choice of propane as a substitute refrigerant using the data in Table 1.
[2]
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Question 21
The stratospheric ozone layer absorbs much of the ultraviolet radiation that would otherwise reach Earth's surface. Answer the following questions about ultraviolet radiation, ozone depletion and responses to increased UV exposure.
Distinguish between UVA, UVB and UVC radiation in terms of wavelength, energy and atmospheric absorption.
[4]
Explain how a reduction in stratospheric ozone may affect organisms and ecosystem productivity.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the relative importance of preventing stratospheric ozone depletion and adapting to increased ultraviolet exposure.
[9]
Question 22
The reactions involved in chlorine-catalysed ozone destruction include:
Deduce the net reaction.
[1]
Explain why one chlorine radical can destroy many ozone molecules.
[2]
State why CFCs can reach the stratosphere before releasing chlorine radicals.
[1]
Question 23
Figure 5 summarizes conditions in the Antarctic stratosphere from winter to late spring.
Explain why the greatest polar ozone depletion occurs during spring rather than during the dark polar winter.
[4]
Question 24
A school in a hot city plans to reduce the environmental impacts of cooling. Most classrooms receive strong afternoon sunlight, the electricity supply is mainly generated using fossil fuels, and existing air-conditioning units use high-global-warming-potential HFC refrigerants.
Explain one building-design strategy that could reduce the environmental impact of cooling at the school.
[2]
Explain one equipment-management strategy that could reduce the environmental impact of cooling at the school.
[2]
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Question 25
A research station measured conditions inside the Arctic polar vortex during two consecutive winters. A volcanic eruption occurred at a high northern latitude in August of Year 2. Figure 5(a) compares stratospheric conditions in the two years. Figure 5(b) summarizes the seasonal processes affecting polar ozone.
Monthly stratospheric conditions measured inside the Arctic polar vortex during two consecutive winters.
| Month | Condition | Year 1 | Year 2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| December | Minimum temperature / | -68 | -70 |
| December | PSC area index | 5 | 15 |
| December | Aerosol surface-area density / | 3 | 12 |
| December | Total-column ozone / DU | 335 | 332 |
| January | Minimum temperature / | -72 | -77 |
| January | PSC area index | 18 | 48 |
| January | Aerosol surface-area density / | 3 | 13 |
| January | Total-column ozone / DU | 330 | 310 |
| February | Minimum temperature / | -75 | -82 |
| February | PSC area index | 30 | 72 |
| February | Aerosol surface-area density / | 3 | 14 |
| February | Total-column ozone / DU | 322 | 270 |
| March | Minimum temperature / | -76 | -84 |
| March | PSC area index | 35 | 82 |
| March | Aerosol surface-area density / | 3 | 14 |
| March | Total-column ozone / DU | 315 | 238 |
| April | Minimum temperature / | -71 | -77 |
| April | PSC area index | 20 | 48 |
| April | Aerosol surface-area density / | 2 | 12 |
| April | Total-column ozone / DU | 330 | 270 |
| May | Minimum temperature / | -62 | -64 |
| May | PSC area index | 3 | 6 |
| May | Aerosol surface-area density / | 2 | 9 |
| May | Total-column ozone / DU | 355 | 340 |
Calculate the percentage by which March total-column ozone was lower in Year 2 than in Year 1.
[2]
Compare the March stratospheric conditions in Year 1 and Year 2.
[3]
Explain how the conditions shown can produce rapid ozone depletion when sunlight returns.
[4]
Using chemical equations, explain why chlorine acts as a catalyst in stratospheric ozone destruction.
[3]
Evaluate the evidence that the volcanic eruption increased ozone depletion in Year 2.
[4]
Question 26
The city of Norvale plans to replace 20 000 ageing domestic refrigerators. Figure 6(a) gives information about the refrigerants in three replacement options. Figure 6(b) shows two proposed end-of-life systems for the old refrigerators.
Figure 6(a): Replacement refrigerator options with equal cooling capacity.
| Option | Refrigerant | Charge / kg | ODP | GWP (100-year) | Annual leakage / % | Electricity / kWh year | Purchase cost index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | 0.18 | 0.055 | 1810 | 6 | 310 | 90 | |
| B | 0.16 | 0 | 1430 | 4 | 270 | 100 | |
| C | Isobutane | 0.07 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 225 | 112 |
Calculate the mass of HCFC-22 released if all old refrigerators follow Route 1.
[2]
Calculate the annual direct greenhouse-gas emissions from refrigerant leakage for one refrigerator using Option B.
[2]
Distinguish the principal atmospheric impacts of Options A and B.
[3]
Explain how the Kigali Amendment addresses an environmental consequence of replacing ozone-depleting refrigerants.
[3]
Evaluate which combination of replacement option and end-of-life route Norvale should adopt.
[6]
Question 27
Rasana is a rapidly warming coastal city. The municipal government compared cooling demand in four districts and tested building retrofits in identical apartment blocks. Figures 7(a) and 7(b) show the results.
Cooling-electricity use and contextual indicators in four districts of Rasana.
| District | Annual AC use / | Income index | Reliable access / | Hottest month / |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Harbour Central | 760 | 145 | 100 | 33 |
| East Towers | 540 | 105 | 98 | 35 |
| Garden Ward | 310 | 92 | 96 | 32 |
| Informal West | 95 | 38 | 61 | 36 |
Apartment-block retrofit outcomes during a hot month.
| Treatment | Cooling electricity use / kWh | Mean indoor afternoon temperature / | Capital-cost index |
|---|---|---|---|
| No retrofit | 1480 | 0 | |
| External shading + reflective roof | 930 | 28 | |
| Shading + reflective roof + cross-ventilation | 610 | 46 | |
| Efficient low-GWP air conditioner + all passive measures | 420 | 100 |
Calculate the ratio of annual air-conditioning electricity use per capita in Harbour Central to that in Informal West.
[2]
Interpret two contextual reasons for the difference in cooling-electricity use between Harbour Central and Informal West, and comment on whether the temperature data explain the difference.
[3]
Calculate the percentage reduction in cooling-electricity use achieved by combining shading, a reflective roof and cross-ventilation, compared with no retrofit.
[2]
Explain how three of the passive measures reduce cooling demand.
[3]
Evaluate a city-wide strategy for providing safe cooling while reducing environmental impacts and inequality.
[5]
Question 28
Cooling-energy use and selected socioeconomic conditions are shown for four anonymized societies. A proposed low-impact building is also shown.
Annual cooling-electricity use and selected conditions in four societies; all data refer to the same year.
| Society | Cooling electricity / kWh per person per year | Mean summer temperature / | Income / international dollars per person | Electricity access / % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | 620 | 30 | 45 000 | 100 |
| B | 410 | 34 | 12 000 | 82 |
| C | 140 | 27 | 38 000 | 100 |
| D | 35 | 35 | 3 000 | 48 |
Calculate how many times greater annual cooling-electricity use per capita is in Society A than in Society D.
[2]
Interpret two reasons for the difference in cooling-electricity use per capita between societies A and D.
[2]
Review the proposed building design as an alternative to relying entirely on conventional air conditioning.
[4]
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Question 29
Outline how stratospheric ozone is maintained at a steady-state equilibrium.
[4]
Explain why reductions in the production of ozone-depleting substances do not result in an immediate recovery of stratospheric ozone.
[7]
To what extent can the success of the Montreal Protocol be attributed to the design of the treaty rather than to wider technological, economic and social factors?
[9]
Question 30
Distinguish between global stratospheric ozone depletion and a polar ozone hole.
[4]
Explain how long-term observations of stratospheric ozone can be used to assess whether the planetary boundary for ozone depletion has been avoided.
[7]
Using real-world examples, evaluate the extent to which the Montreal Protocol provides a model for managing other global environmental issues.
[9]
Question 31
Distinguish between CFCs and HFCs as refrigerants and outline the purpose of the Kigali Amendment.
[4]
Explain how refrigerant management throughout the life cycle of cooling equipment can reduce both ozone depletion and climate change.
[7]
Using real-world examples, evaluate whether replacing high-impact refrigerants is sufficient to make cooling systems environmentally sustainable.
[9]
Question 32
Researchers used sealed reaction chambers to investigate the effects of a chlorine-containing compound on ozone. Each chamber initially contained equal concentrations of molecular oxygen and ozone. Chamber A received UV radiation only. Chamber B received the same UV radiation and a small quantity of a CFC. Figure 8(a) shows the reaction pathway, and Figure 8(b) shows the chamber results.
Figure 8(b): mean concentration from three replicate chambers; both chambers had the same UV intensity and temperature.
| Time / min | Ozone, Chamber A (UV only) / arbitrary units | Ozone, Chamber B (UV + CFC) / arbitrary units | Chlorine radicals, Chamber B / arbitrary units |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | |||
| 10 | |||
| 20 | |||
| 30 | |||
| 40 | |||
| 50 | |||
| 60 |
Calculate the percentage decrease in ozone concentration in Chamber B during the 60-minute experiment.
[2]
State the chemical equations for the natural formation of ozone shown in Figure 8(a).
[2]
Deduce the net equation for the chlorine-catalysed reactions and explain why the chlorine-radical concentration remains approximately constant.
[3]
Explain why the CFC can release chlorine in the stratosphere despite being relatively unreactive near Earth's surface.
[3]
Evaluate how well the chamber results support the proposed mechanism of CFC-driven stratospheric ozone depletion.
[5]
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Question 33
Explain, using chemical equations, the natural formation and ultraviolet-driven destruction of stratospheric ozone.
[4]
Explain how CFC emissions and seasonal atmospheric conditions interact to produce severe polar ozone depletion in spring.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the relative importance of ozone-depleting substance concentrations and atmospheric conditions in determining the severity of polar ozone depletion.
[9]
Question 34
Outline four environmental pressures associated with widespread use of conventional air conditioning.
[4]
Explain why air-conditioning use per capita may differ between societies and why simple international comparisons may be misleading.
[7]
Using named urban examples, to what extent can passive building design, greening and shared cooling replace individual air-conditioning units?
[9]
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