Question 1
Define the atmosphere and state its relationship to the biosphere.
[2]
Question 2
Outline three ways in which the composition of the atmosphere supports life on Earth.
[3]
Question 3
Define a greenhouse gas.
[2]
Question 4
Figure 1 shows a simplified cross-section through Earth's atmosphere and the movement of an airborne tracer released at the surface.
Identify the outer limit of the biosphere shown in Figure 1.
[1]
Calculate the mean speed at which the tracer travelled from P to Q, in .
[2]
Explain two ways in which the atmospheric composition and processes shown in Figure 1 support life on Earth.
[3]
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Question 5
Describe why the equatorial region receives more solar energy per unit area than polar regions.
[3]
Question 6
The figure shows part of the tricellular atmospheric circulation model in the Northern Hemisphere.
Identify the atmospheric circulation cells labelled A, B and C.
[3]
Question 7
Figure 2 shows the tricellular model of atmospheric circulation and mean annual surface temperatures at selected latitudes.
Identify the atmospheric circulation cell between and .
[1]
Calculate the difference in mean annual surface temperature between the equator and .
[1]
Explain why air rises near the equator and sinks near latitude.
[3]
Explain how the circulation shown reduces the temperature difference calculated in (b).
[2]
Question 8
Figure 3 shows a simplified radiation budget for the Earth-atmosphere system. All values are expressed as units per 100 units of incoming solar radiation. The diagram is not intended to represent equilibrium: 10 units are temporarily retained in the Earth-atmosphere system because 100 units enter while 90 units are shown leaving to space.
State the number of units of surface-emitted infrared radiation that escape directly to space.
[1]
Calculate the percentage of surface-emitted infrared radiation absorbed by greenhouse gases.
[2]
Explain how the radiation pathways shown produce the natural greenhouse effect.
[3]
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Question 9
Figure 4 shows results from an investigation of black-carbon deposition on snow. Incoming solar radiation was constant at .
Results of black-carbon (soot from incomplete combustion) deposition on snow under constant incoming solar radiation of
| Black-carbon deposition / | Snow albedo | Absorbed solar radiation / |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0.82 | 54 |
| 1 | 0.75 | 75 |
| 2 | 0.68 | 96 |
| 4 | 0.54 | 138 |
State the albedo of snow receiving of black carbon.
[1]
Calculate the percentage increase in absorbed solar radiation between deposition levels of 0 and .
[2]
Explain the relationship between black-carbon deposition, albedo and absorbed solar radiation shown in Figure 4.
[2]
Suggest one consequence of the relationship shown for the atmospheric system.
[1]
Question 10
Distinguish between the natural greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect.
[4]
Question 11
Scientists compared a simplified atmospheric-circulation model with measurements of Earth's annual mean energy balance by latitude.
Identify the circulation cell extending from the equator to approximately north.
[1]
Calculate the difference in annual mean net radiation between the equator and north.
[2]
Explain how differential heating produces the circulation shown in Figure 1(a).
[3]
Evaluate the usefulness of the tricellular model for explaining the redistribution of heat around Earth.
[6]
Question 12
Students investigated the cooling of four sealed transparent chambers after each chamber had been heated to . The chambers were identical except for their gas composition. Infrared lamps were switched off at time zero.
Identify the chamber that cooled most slowly.
[1]
Calculate the difference in temperature decrease between the dry-air chamber and the methane-enriched chamber after 10 minutes.
[2]
Explain the differences in cooling shown in Figure 2(a).
[3]
Evaluate the use of this investigation as a model of the greenhouse effect in Earth's atmosphere.
[6]
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Question 13
Black carbon emitted by incomplete combustion is transported by wind to the Aruna ice field. Researchers compared adjacent snow plots during a 24-hour period with equal incoming solar radiation.
Figure 3(b): Mean albedo and meltwater production over 24 hours for three snow treatments.
| Snow treatment | Mean albedo | Meltwater production / mm per 24 h |
|---|---|---|
| Clean snow | 0.82 | 18 |
| Black-carbon-contaminated snow | 0.55 | 43 |
| Contaminated snow after surface cleaning | 0.74 | 25 |
State the difference between the albedo of clean snow and black-carbon-contaminated snow.
[1]
Calculate the percentage increase in meltwater production from clean snow to black-carbon-contaminated snow.
[2]
Explain the relationship between black carbon, snow albedo and meltwater production shown in Figure 3(b).
[3]
Evaluate strategies for reducing the warming effect of black carbon on the Aruna ice field.
[6]
Question 14
Figure 4 represents monthly water transfers involving the atmosphere above the fictional Pelora coastal forest. All transfer values are expressed as an equivalent depth of water over the study area.
Calculate the monthly change in atmospheric water storage within the system boundary.
[2]
Outline two ways in which the composition of the atmosphere supports life.
[2]
Explain how wind links the atmosphere above Pelora to other parts of the Earth system.
[3]
Evaluate the usefulness of Figure 4(a) for representing the atmosphere as a system.
[5]
Question 15
Figure 5 shows annual global mean temperature anomaly and atmospheric water-vapour content over a 20-year period. Values are relative to the first year.
Annual changes in global mean temperature anomaly and atmospheric water-vapour content, relative to year 1.
| Year | Temperature anomaly / | Water-vapour change / % |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 0.00 | 0.0 |
| 2 | 0.05 | 0.3 |
| 3 | 0.09 | 0.6 |
| 4 | 0.14 | 0.9 |
| 5 | 0.18 | 1.1 |
| 6 | 0.16 | 1.0 |
| 7 | 0.22 | 1.4 |
| 8 | 0.26 | 1.6 |
| 9 | 0.24 | 1.5 |
| 10 | 0.31 | 2.0 |
| 11 | 0.34 | 2.2 |
| 12 | 0.33 | 2.1 |
| 13 | 0.38 | 2.5 |
| 14 | 0.41 | 2.6 |
| 15 | 0.43 | 2.8 |
| 16 | 0.47 | 3.1 |
| 17 | 0.46 | 3.0 |
| 18 | 0.52 | 3.5 |
| 19 | 0.56 | 3.7 |
| 20 | 0.60 | 4.0 |
Describe the relationship between temperature anomaly and atmospheric water-vapour content shown in Figure 5.
[2]
Calculate the mean increase in atmospheric water-vapour content per increase in temperature anomaly between years 1 and 20.
[2]
Explain how the relationship shown may operate as a positive feedback in the atmospheric system.
[2]
Suggest why directly reducing atmospheric water vapour would be an inappropriate climate-change mitigation strategy.
[1]
Question 16
Explain the formation of the surface low-pressure belt near the equator and the surface high-pressure belt near latitude.
[4]
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Question 17
Draw a systems diagram representing interactions between the atmosphere and other Earth systems. Include an energy input, two energy outputs, at least three storages and two transfers between storages.
[4]
Question 18
Explain two ways in which black carbon can contribute to atmospheric warming.
[4]
Question 19
Explain why reducing atmospheric water vapour directly is not generally proposed as a climate-change mitigation strategy.
[3]
Question 20
Figure 6 compares outgoing infrared radiation immediately before and immediately after atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is doubled. Surface temperature is unchanged during this initial comparison.
Identify the wavelength at which doubling carbon dioxide produces the largest decrease in outgoing infrared radiation.
[1]
Calculate the percentage decrease in total outgoing long-wave radiation immediately after carbon dioxide is doubled.
[2]
Analyse how the change shown can lead to an enhanced greenhouse effect.
[3]
Suggest why the two curves remain similar at some wavelengths despite the doubling of carbon dioxide.
[1]
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Question 21
Figure 7 is a systems diagram representing selected energy transfers involving the atmosphere. All numerical energy flows are expressed as energy units per unit time.
Calculate the total energy transferred from the surface to the atmosphere by convection and latent-heat transfer.
[1]
Determine the total energy output from the Earth system to space shown in Figure 7.
[2]
Using Figure 7, deduce whether the Earth system is gaining or losing energy at the time represented.
[2]
Analyse how two transfers in Figure 7 link the atmosphere with other Earth-system storages.
[2]
Question 22
Outline four ways in which the composition and processes of the atmosphere support life on Earth.
[4]
Explain how differential heating produces the tricellular circulation model and redistributes thermal energy between the equator and the poles.
[7]
Using real-world examples, to what extent is atmospheric circulation the most important atmospheric process contributing to the stability of life on Earth?
[9]
Question 23
The figure represents selected radiation pathways in the atmosphere. Arrow P is incoming solar radiation, arrow Q is infrared radiation emitted by the warmed surface, and arrow R is radiation directed back towards the surface.
Explain the processes that produce radiation pathway R and how an increased greenhouse-gas concentration would affect this pathway.
[4]
Question 24
Explain how atmospheric circulation and the natural greenhouse effect together contribute to the stability of life on Earth.
[4]
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Question 25
Satellite measurements and a climate model were used to construct two simplified global energy budgets. Values are percentages of incoming solar radiation.
Calculate Earth's albedo represented in Figure 5(a).
[2]
Demonstrate that both energy budgets represent equilibrium at the top of the atmosphere.
[2]
Analyse how the increased greenhouse-gas concentration changes the energy transfers shown.
[4]
Evaluate the claim that the enhanced greenhouse effect prevents energy from escaping to space.
[7]
Question 26
A climate-model study used the same increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide in two simulations. In simulation F, atmospheric water vapour was held fixed. In simulation D, water vapour was allowed to respond dynamically to temperature.
Calculate the percentage by which the 2100 temperature anomaly in simulation D exceeds that in simulation F.
[2]
Describe the relationship between atmospheric water vapour and temperature in simulation D.
[2]
Explain why simulation D produces a greater temperature anomaly than simulation F.
[4]
Evaluate whether the model results support directly reducing atmospheric water vapour as a climate-change mitigation strategy.
[6]
Question 27
Researchers compared the tricellular model with seasonal observations over the fictional Meridia continent.
Figure 7(c): Observed agreement of prevailing surface-wind direction with tricellular-model predictions over 20 years.
| Station | Latitude / N | Location | Agreement with model / % |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | — | 82 |
| 2 | 25 | — | 76 |
| 3 | 40 | Beside mountain chain | 41 |
| 4 | 55 | — | 68 |
| 5 | 68 | — | 73 |
Identify the circulation cell associated with station 4.
[1]
Calculate the difference in agreement with the model between stations 2 and 3.
[2]
Explain the seasonal movement of the main rising-air belt shown in Figure 7(b).
[3]
Analyse the extent to which the observations support the tricellular model.
[4]
Evaluate the use of the tricellular model to predict atmospheric circulation over Meridia.
[5]
Question 28
Figure 8 compares the latitude of low-pressure, high-precipitation zones in January and July with the positions predicted by a simplified annual tricellular circulation model.
Surface pressure and monthly precipitation by latitude; signed latitude is north-positive. Tricellular reference latitudes are shown for comparison.
| Latitude / (N +) | January pressure / hPa | July pressure / hPa | January precipitation / mm | July precipitation / mm | Tricellular reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -40 | 1016 | 1013 | 45 | 35 | — |
| -35 | 1018 | 1015 | 55 | 40 | — |
| -30 | 1020 | 1016 | 65 | 45 | |
| -27 | 1021 | 1016 | 75 | 50 | — |
| -25 | 1020 | 1017 | 85 | 55 | — |
| -20 | 1017 | 1015 | 120 | 65 | — |
| -15 | 1013 | 1012 | 180 | 75 | — |
| -10 | 1009 | 1009 | 250 | 90 | — |
| -5 | 1007 | 1007 | 290 | 120 | — |
| 0 | 1009 | 1006 | 265 | 170 | Equator |
| 5 | 1012 | 1006 | 210 | 250 | — |
| 10 | 1015 | 1006 | 150 | 325 | — |
| 12 | 1016 | 1005 | 130 | 340 | — |
| 15 | 1017 | 1006 | 110 | 310 | — |
| 20 | 1017 | 1011 | 80 | 220 | — |
| 25 | 1018 | 1016 | 65 | 140 | — |
| 27 | 1017 | 1018 | 60 | 120 | — |
| 30 | 1017 | 1021 | 55 | 95 | |
| 33 | 1016 | 1023 | 50 | 75 | — |
| 35 | 1015 | 1022 | 45 | 60 | — |
| 40 | 1013 | 1018 | 40 | 45 | — |
Identify the latitude of peak precipitation in July.
[1]
Calculate the latitudinal shift in the zone of peak precipitation from January to July.
[2]
Explain the relationship between surface pressure and precipitation shown near the tropical convergence zone.
[2]
Analyse how differential heating accounts for the seasonal shift calculated in (b).
[2]
Suggest one limitation of using the tricellular model to predict the pressure belts shown in Figure 8.
[1]
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Question 29
Distinguish between a greenhouse gas and an aerosol, giving one example of each.
[4]
Explain the natural greenhouse effect and how human activities can enhance this effect.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the claim that reducing carbon dioxide emissions alone is sufficient to limit disruption of Earth's atmospheric energy balance.
[9]
Question 30
Outline two characteristics of black carbon and two sources from which it may be emitted.
[4]
Explain how black carbon and greenhouse gases alter Earth's energy balance in different ways.
[7]
Using at least two named examples, discuss whether reducing black-carbon emissions should be given the same priority as reducing greenhouse-gas emissions.
[9]
Question 31
Explain why the atmosphere may be considered both the outer boundary of the biosphere and part of an open Earth system.
[4]
Draw a systems diagram representing the atmospheric system. Include a system boundary, at least four named storages, an energy input, two energy outputs and four named transfers between storages.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate the usefulness of systems diagrams for understanding how the atmosphere contributes to the stability of life on Earth.
[9]
Question 32
An atmospheric agency summarized changes in selected atmospheric components since the pre-industrial period. Positive radiative forcing indicates a warming influence on Earth's energy balance.
Global mean atmospheric concentrations in the pre-industrial period and today.
| Atmospheric component | Pre-industrial concentration / ppm or ppb | Current concentration / ppm or ppb |
|---|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide | 280 ppm | 420 ppm |
| Methane | 720 ppb | 1920 ppb |
| Nitrous oxide | 270 ppb | 336 ppb |
Estimated current positive radiative forcing relative to pre-industrial conditions.
| Atmospheric component | Estimated forcing / W m | Uncertainty / W m |
|---|---|---|
| Carbon dioxide | 2.16 | |
| Methane | 0.54 | |
| Nitrous oxide | 0.21 | |
| Black carbon | 0.15 |
Calculate the percentage increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.
[2]
Compare the concentration changes of methane and nitrous oxide.
[3]
Explain how the atmospheric components in Figures 8(a) and 8(b) contribute to warming.
[4]
Evaluate the claim that carbon dioxide alone is a sufficient indicator for policies intended to reduce atmospheric warming.
[6]
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Question 33
Distinguish between radiative forcing and an atmospheric feedback, using carbon dioxide and water vapour as examples.
[4]
Analyse the role of water vapour in the atmospheric system and explain why it is treated differently from directly emitted greenhouse gases in mitigation strategies.
[7]
Using named examples, evaluate whether all atmospheric warming agents should be managed using the same policy approach.
[9]
Question 34
Outline the principal features of the tricellular model of atmospheric circulation in one hemisphere.
[4]
Analyse why observed atmospheric circulation may differ from the pattern represented by the tricellular model.
[7]
Using named examples, to what extent is the tricellular model sufficient for explaining the contribution of atmospheric circulation to the stability of life on Earth?
[9]
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