Look forth, deliverer,
    Look forth, first-born of the dead,
    Over the tree-tops of Paradise;
    See thyself in yet continued bonds,
    Toilsome and poor, thou bear'st man's form again,
    Thou art reviled, scourged, put into prison,
    Hunted from the arrogant equality of the rest;
    With staves and swords throng the willing servants of authority,
    Again they surround thee, mad with devilish spite;
    Toward thee stretch the hands of a multitude, like vultures' talons,
    The meanest spit in thy face, they smite thee with their palms;
    Bruised, bloody, and pinion'd is thy body,
    More sorrowful than death is thy soul.

    Witness of anguish, brother of slaves,
    Not with thy price closed the price of thine image:
    And still Iscariot plies his trade.

    *April, 1843*.

    PAUMANOK.

Walt Whitman, *Song of Myself* (1855). Project Gutenberg ebook 8813.

Song of Myself

It seemed that out of the battle I escaped
     Down some profound dull tunnel, long since scooped
     Through granites which Titanic wars had groined.
     Yet also there encumbered sleepers groaned,
     Too fast in thought or death to be bestirred.
     Then, as I probed them, one sprang up, and stared
     With piteous recognition in fixed eyes,
     Lifting distressful hands as if to bless.
     And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall;
     With a thousand fears that vision's face was grained;
     Yet no blood reached there from the upper ground,
     And no guns thumped, or down the flues made moan.
     "Strange, friend," I said, "Here is no cause to mourn."
     "None," said the other, "Save the undone years,
     The hopelessness.  Whatever hope is yours,
     Was my life also; I went hunting wild
     After the wildest beauty in the world,
     Which lies not calm in eyes, or braided hair,
     But mocks the steady running of the hour,
     And if it grieves, grieves richlier than here.
     For by my glee might many men have laughed,
     And of my weeping something has been left,
     Which must die now.  I mean the truth untold,
     The pity of war, the pity war distilled.
     Now men will go content with what we spoiled.
     Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled.
     They will be swift with swiftness of the tigress,
     None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress.
     Courage was mine, and I had mystery;
     Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery;
     To miss the march of this retreating world
     Into vain citadels that are not walled.
     Then, when much blood had clogged their chariot-wheels
     I would go up and wash them from sweet wells,
     Even with truths that lie too deep for taint.
     I would have poured my spirit without stint
     But not through wounds; not on the cess of war.
     Foreheads of men have bled where no wounds were.
     I am the enemy you killed, my friend.
     I knew you in this dark; for so you frowned
     Yesterday through me as you jabbed and killed.
     I parried; but my hands were loath and cold.
     Let us sleep now . . ."

         (This poem was found among the author's papers.
         It ends on this strange note.)

Wilfred Owen, *Selected war poems* (1920). Project Gutenberg ebook 1034.

Selected war poems

I said: This is a beautiful fresh rose.
      I said: I will delight me with its scent,
      Will watch its lovely curve of languishment,
    Will watch its leaves unclose, its heart unclose.
    I said: Old Earth has put away her snows,
      All living things make merry to their bent,
      A flower is come for every flower that went
    In autumn; the sun glows, the south wind blows.
    So walking in a garden of delight
      I came upon one sheltered shadowed nook
    Where broad leaf shadows veiled the day with night,
      And there lay snow unmelted by the sun:--
    I answered: Take who will the path I took,
      Winter nips once for all; love is but one.

    AUTUMN VIOLETS.

    Keep love for youth, and violets for the spring:
      Or if these bloom when worn-out autumn grieves,
      Let them lie hid in double shade of leaves,
    Their own, and others dropped down withering;
    For violets suit when home birds build and sing,
      Not when the outbound bird a passage cleaves;
      Not with dry stubble of mown harvest sheaves,
    But when the green world buds to blossoming.
    Keep violets for the spring, and love for youth,
      Love that should dwell with beauty, mirth, and hope:
        Or if a later sadder love be born,
      Let this not look for grace beyond its scope,
    But give itself, nor plead for answering truth--
        A grateful Ruth tho' gleaning scanty corn.

Christina Rossetti, *Goblin Market and other poems* (1862). Project Gutenberg ebook 19188.

Goblin Market and other poems

Vast and starless, the pall of heaven
      Laps on the trailing pall below;
    And forward, forward, in solemn darkness,
      As if to the sea of the lost we go.

    Now drawn nigh the edge of the river,
      Weird-like creatures suddenly rise;
    Shapes that fade, dissolving outlines
      Baffle the gazer's straining eyes.

    Towering upward and bending forward,
      Wild and wide their arms are thrown,
    Ready to pierce with forked fingers
      Him who touches their realm upon.

    Tide of youth, thus thickly planted,
      While in the eddies onward you swim,
    Thus on the shore stands a phantom army,
      Lining forever the channel's rim.

    Steady, helmsman! you guide the immortal;
      Many a wreck is beneath you piled,
    Many a brave yet unwary sailor
      Over these waters has been beguiled.

    Nor is it the storm or the scowling midnight,
      Cold, or sickness, or fire's dismay--
    Nor is it the reef, or treacherous quicksand,
      Will peril you most on your twisted way.

    But when there comes a voluptuous languor,
      Soft the sunshine, silent the air,
    Bewitching your craft with safety and sweetness,
      Then, young pilot of life, beware.

Happy are men who yet before they are killed
     Can let their veins run cold.
     Whom no compassion fleers
     Or makes their feet
     Sore on the alleys cobbled with their brothers.
     The front line withers,
     But they are troops who fade, not flowers
     For poets' tearful fooling:
     Men, gaps for filling
     Losses who might have fought
     Longer; but no one bothers.

O you, you little wonder, come--come in,
    You wonderful, you woolly soft white lamb:
    You panting mother ewe, come too,
    And lead that tottering twin
    Safe in:
    Bring all your bleating kith and kin,
    Except the horny ram.

    [February opens a second door in the background, and the
    little flock files through into a warm and sheltered compartment
    out of sight.]

      The lambkin tottering in its walk
        With just a fleece to wear;
      The snowdrop drooping on its stalk
          So slender,--
      Snowdrop and lamb, a pretty pair,
      Braving the cold for our delight,
          Both white,
          Both tender.

    [A rattling of doors and windows; branches seen without,
    tossing violently to and fro.]

    How the doors rattle, and the branches sway!
    Here's brother March comes whirling on his way
    With winds that eddy and sing.

    [She turns the handle of the door, which bursts open, and
    discloses March hastening up, both hands full of violets
    and anemones.]

The line as a unit of meaning

Form and its pressure

Voice and address

Image and figure

Sound and sense

Guided analysis of unseen poetry

### Reading the line and the sentence

Poems are written in lines, yet their grammar still works through phrases, clauses and sentences. Don’t assume that each line contains a complete thought. Start with the syntax. Find the main verbs, connect modifiers to the words they describe and check where the sentences actually end. After that, return to the line breaks and consider how they change the grammatical movement.

**Lineation** is the arrangement of a poem’s language into separate lines in order to control pace, emphasis, rhythm or visual form. The poet chooses where every line ends, so its final word often attracts extra attention. A break might isolate a word or create suspense before the next line. It can also briefly suggest a meaning that the continuation later revises.

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It helps to distinguish grammatical completion from visual completion. At a line ending, the page tells the eye to pause even when the syntax tells the voice to carry on. The effect often comes from the agreement or friction between those signals.

### Enjambment and end-stopping

**Enjambment** is the continuation of a grammatical unit beyond the end of one poetic line without terminal punctuation. It may create speed, urgency or conversational flow, but none of these effects is automatic. If a word is strategically withheld, the incomplete syntax may instead become conspicuous and slow the reader down.

An **end-stopped line** is a poetic line whose ending coincides with a grammatical pause, usually marked by punctuation. End-stopping may create firmness, balance or finality. Several end-stopped lines in a row can make thoughts appear controlled or self-contained. Against that pattern, one unexpected enjambment may feel disruptive.

Always identify the local mechanism. Don’t simply write that enjambment “makes the poem flow”. Explain what crosses the line boundary and why it matters. A verb might be delayed, an apparently complete claim overturned, or one stanza made syntactically dependent on the next.

### Caesura and internal movement

A **caesura** is a substantial pause within a poetic line, produced by punctuation, spacing or a strong syntactic break. By dividing the line internally, it may stage hesitation, opposition, interruption or a shift in thought. Placement matters. A central caesura can balance two ideas, whereas an irregular pause can disturb an established rhythm.

Line length and layout shape the reading too. Short lines may expose individual words or create a halting pace. Long lines can accumulate detail or strain against the page. These effects have to be inferred from the poem itself: visual brevity doesn’t necessarily signal conceptual simplicity, and a long line may be controlled rather than breathless.

An annotated poetry extract showing sentence boundaries crossing line breaks, enjambment, end-stopping, a caesura and the temporary ambiguity created by a strategically placed break.

### Stanzas as units of development

A **stanza** is a group of poetic lines set apart from neighbouring lines by a space or another typographical division. Stanzas can mark stages in an argument, changes of scene, shifts in time or movements between voices. Although they may work like paragraphs, they don't have to contain complete grammatical units.

Look for pattern, but also for progression. Equal-length stanzas may create a sense of order even as their contents grow increasingly unstable. If the final stanza is shorter, it can feel abrupt, exposed or conclusive because it breaks the pattern the poem has taught us to expect. Form isn't just a decorative container. It sets up expectations that make individual choices meaningful.

### Metre and rhythm

**Rhythm** is the perceptible movement of language produced through patterns of stress, duration, phrasing and pause. **Metre** is a regular organizing pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in verse. It provides an underlying expectation, which the spoken rhythm of a particular line may follow or resist.

A **metrical foot** is a recurring unit of stressed and unstressed syllables used to describe metre. Scansion helps identify the broad pattern, but marking syllables is only a starting point. Ask what that pattern enables the poem to do. A regular beat might suggest ceremony, song, routine or constraint. An added stress, a missing syllable or a displaced pause may highlight a moment of emotional or conceptual pressure.

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Read the poem aloud before making claims about metre. Pronunciation changes with syntax and context, while forcing every line into a perfect scheme may erase deliberate variation. A stronger approach is usually to establish the dominant tendency, then examine a significant departure from it.

### Rhyme and expectation

**Rhyme** is a correspondence of sound between words, most noticeably at or near their endings. **End rhyme** puts rhyming words at line endings, whereas **internal rhyme** places the correspondence within a line or across internal positions. A **rhyme scheme** is the recurring arrangement of end rhymes, conventionally shown through letters.

Rhyme can link words through meaning as well as sound. Two rhyming terms might reinforce one another or reveal a contrast; one idea may seem to answer another. Regular rhyme can make a poem memorable and create closure. Yet it may also feel coercive when difficult experience is pressed into a neat pattern.

Approximate rhyme, or a rhyme that is unexpectedly missing, can matter just as much. Establish the pattern first. Then identify the deviation and explain how it alters the reader’s expectation. This three-stage movement—pattern, departure, consequence—is much stronger than simply labelling the poem’s structure “irregular”.

### Fixed and open forms

A **fixed form** is a poetic structure governed by established conventions, such as a prescribed line count, stanza pattern, metre or rhyme scheme. **Free verse** is verse without a regular metrical or rhyme scheme, though poets still shape it deliberately through lineation, syntax, repetition, sound and visual arrangement.

Free verse isn't formless. In the same way, a traditional form doesn't necessarily signal emotional control. Consider how the poem inhabits its structure. It may follow a convention, modify it, parody it or struggle against it. Literary tradition gains meaning through this interaction between inherited expectation and present choice.

A comparative diagram of two short stanza patterns, showing regular metre and rhyme in one and a conspicuous metrical, stanzaic or rhyme departure in the other, with the reader's disrupted expectation labelled.

### Speaker, poet and persona

The **speaker** is the textual voice that seems to utter the poem. That voice isn’t automatically the poet. A poem may use the first person or appear autobiographical, but the voice on the page remains an artistic construction. Selection shapes it, as do form and language.

A **persona** is a deliberately fashioned speaking identity through which the poem is voiced. This identity may have a recognizable social role or historical position, along with a particular outlook or manner of speech. Keeping speaker and poet separate as analytical categories avoids unsupported biographical claims. It also keeps the focus on evidence from the poem.

Build a picture of the speaker from the details: pronouns and diction, what the voice knows, its judgments, what it leaves out, and any changes in attitude. The speaker may also be unreliable. An **unreliable speaker** is a poetic voice whose account or judgment the text gives the reader reason to question. Doubt may arise from contradictions or evasions. It can also emerge from a gap between the speaker’s words and what the poem allows us to perceive.

### Address and the implied listener

The **implied listener** is the person, group, object or absent presence that the speaker’s words seem to address. The poem may name this listener directly or suggest them through second-person pronouns. Sometimes, readers must infer the listener from what the speaker feels compelled to explain.

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Address creates a relationship. Commands might suggest authority or desperation. Questions can invite an answer, accuse the listener or expose uncertainty. Repeated naming may produce intimacy, ritual or distance. When the listener never replies, that silence becomes part of the dramatic situation.

The reader isn’t necessarily the implied listener. We may be overhearing words intended for someone else. As a result, we might know something the addressee doesn’t, or judge the speaker from outside the relationship. A shift from “I” and “you” to “we”, for example, can turn a private exchange into a collective claim—but check who that apparently inclusive pronoun leaves out.

### Tone and tonal movement

**Tone** is the attitude conveyed by the speaker’s language towards a subject, listener or situation. It comes from the interaction of diction and syntax, as well as imagery, rhythm and punctuation. Tone isn’t simply the emotion named in the poem.

Choose tonal vocabulary that is precise and defensible. If the language supports it, “Bitterly amused” may express a tension that “sad” misses. Pay close attention to movement, too. A poem might open ceremonially, then become intimate. It may sound confident until an interrupted sentence reveals doubt. A **tonal shift** is a change in the attitude conveyed by the speaker’s language.

Tone may remain ambiguous. Formal phrasing could be sincere, ironic or both at once. Don’t force certainty. Instead, explain how the poem allows competing readings, then identify which details lend greater weight to one interpretation.

A communication map distinguishing poet, constructed speaker, implied listener and actual reader, including possible gaps in knowledge and judgment between them.

### Imagery and metaphor

**Imagery** is language that evokes sensory perception or gives concrete form to an experience or idea. Visual imagery is common, but imagery can also appeal to sound, touch, taste, smell or bodily movement. Pinpoint the exact details, then explore their associations within the context. Simply labelling something “visual imagery” reveals very little.

A **metaphor** is a figure of speech that presents one thing in terms of another without asserting a literal identity. Its effect comes from the interaction between those two fields of meaning. Consider which qualities are transferred and which are not. Does the comparison dignify, diminish, clarify or complicate its subject?

An **extended metaphor** develops a metaphor through several related details across multiple lines or sections of a poem. What matters is how it develops. A comparison that first seems reassuring may take on threatening implications, or part of it may stop fitting. That resistance can reveal as much as the resemblance.

### Symbol and recurrence

A **symbol** is a concrete element within a text that keeps its literal presence while carrying broader associated meanings. It isn’t a code with one fixed translation. Instead, its implications emerge through repetition, contrast, position, cultural associations and the poem’s own patterning.

Don’t declare that an object “symbolizes hope” and leave it there. Follow what happens to it. Is it distant at first and later touched? Does its colour change? Do different speakers become associated with it? A recurring element becomes useful for analysis when a changed context alters what it can mean.

### Image patterns and turns

A **motif** is a recurring image, word, situation or idea that contributes to a developing pattern in a work. Several images might share a **semantic field**, a group of words connected by an area of meaning. Images of enclosure, for example, may build until tight syntax or narrow lines make the poem’s language itself seem constrained.

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A poem may also make an **imagistic turn**, changing the direction or implications of its imagery. Describe that movement rather than simply listing devices. An image might shift from natural to mechanical, intimate to public or protective to confining. Connect this movement to the poem’s larger change in understanding.

Images carry cultural and historical associations too. Readers from different communities may recognise different implications, so interpretation is negotiated rather than mechanically extracted. Context should illuminate the textual detail, not replace it. Start with what the poem makes present, then consider the belief systems or traditions that shape its reception.

A flow diagram tracing one recurring image through several stages of a poem, showing changes in context, associated qualities and larger implications at the poem's turn.

### Hearing the poem

We encounter poetry through the ear as well as the eye. Its sound comes from stress, syllable length, repetition, punctuation and the movement of sentences. First, read the poem aloud in a natural voice. Then listen for moments when sounds gather or patterns shift. A single repeated consonant will rarely matter much; a sustained pattern linked to an important idea may be significant.

**Assonance** is the repetition of similar vowel sounds in nearby stressed syllables or words. **Consonance** is the repetition of consonant sounds within or at the ends of nearby words. **Alliteration** is a form of consonantal repetition occurring at the beginnings of nearby stressed words or syllables.

These devices may bind words together, strengthen the rhythm or make a phrase stick in the reader’s mind. Context and articulation shape the effect. Open vowels may draw out a phrase if metre and syntax also permit expansion. Clustered consonants, by contrast, may make pronunciation difficult when the poem depicts resistance. Don’t assign fixed emotions to particular sounds.

### Repetition and pattern

**Repetition** is the deliberate recurrence of a sound, word, phrase, line or syntactic structure. A **refrain** is a line or group of lines repeated at intervals in a poem. Recurrence may suggest ritual, insistence, musicality or entrapment. Yet each repetition can feel different because its context has changed.

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Listen for changes inside the repetition. A phrase that first sounds assertive may later become defensive; after intervening events, a refrain may turn ironic. Ask both “What returns?” and “What does its return make us hear differently now?”

### Sound working with meaning

**Onomatopoeia** is the use of a word whose sound imitates or suggests the sound it denotes. Sound still doesn’t work independently here. Rhythm, placement and the surrounding diction decide whether the imitation feels playful, violent, distant or intrusive.

Sound and sense sometimes reinforce each other. At other times, they clash. A pleasing rhyme may accompany disturbing content and create unease. A smooth rhythm can make a harsh claim sound seductively acceptable, while fractured syntax may break into an otherwise musical pattern. This friction is often more interesting than straightforward harmony.

Build an analysis of sound step by step. Identify the audible pattern and quote enough language for the reader to hear it. Explain how the pattern changes pace or emphasis, then connect that change to voice, imagery or meaning. Sound belongs to the poem’s thinking; it isn’t an ornamental layer added afterwards.

An annotated sound map of a short poetic passage showing stress, assonance, consonance, alliteration, refrain and a change in sound pattern aligned with a shift in meaning.

### What guided analysis requires

In this context, a **guided analysis** is “an exploration of the passage supported by a guiding question, which asks students to consider a technical or formal aspect of the passage.” That question offers a useful way into the text, not a checklist to work through. Students don’t have to answer it directly, but their response should remain clearly focused on an important technical or formal feature.

For the SL Paper 1 described in the supplied guide extract, students are given two previously unseen passages from different literary forms. They choose one to analyse in 1 hour 15 minutes. The passage may be a complete work or an extract from a longer work. Worth 20 marks, the task contributes 35% of the SL result. The wider guide also emphasizes experience across literary forms, periods, places and cultures. Poetry, then, should be treated as one manifestation of literature, not as a sealed collection of devices.

Start with the poem’s literal situation. Who is speaking, to whom, about what and under what apparent circumstances? Next, work out how the poem moves. Divide it where genuine changes occur—in thought, image, address, tone, stanza pattern or syntax. An argument built around such development is stronger than a tour through disconnected techniques.

A strong central interpretation shows how authorial choices create a larger effect or implication. The guiding question may provide the lens, but it shouldn’t trap the response into repeating discussion of a single device. A question about lineation, for instance, can lead naturally into syntax, voice and the speaker’s changing control.

### Understanding, analysis and textual support

Criterion A assesses understanding and interpretation: accurate comprehension of literal meaning, reasoned conclusions about implications and effective references to the text. At the highest level, students show thorough, perceptive understanding. Their interpretation addresses larger implications and subtleties, while their references are well chosen. Every quotation needs a purpose. Choose the word, phrase or structural detail that supports the inference instead of copying large stretches of the poem.

Criterion B assesses analysis and evaluation of how textual features and authorial choices shape meaning. Description states what happens. Analysis explains how the language creates an effect, while evaluation considers why that effect matters within the poem’s larger design. Strong responses make this chain convincing and insightful; they don’t simply attach a stock effect to a named device.

One useful way to shape a paragraph is to begin with an interpretive claim, place a concise reference in its grammatical context, analyse how the choices interact and then return to the poem’s developing meaning. This isn’t a compulsory formula. It simply keeps evidence and commentary connected.

### Focus and organization

Criterion C assesses how organized, coherent and focused the presentation of ideas is. Good organization follows either the poem’s logic or the argument’s logic, which isn’t always the same as moving line by line. Paragraphs could trace stages in the speaker’s attitude, compare competing patterns or explore the changing role of a recurring image.

Keep one controlling interpretation in view throughout the essay. Transitions need to make relationships clear, whether they involve development, contrast or consequence. Two observations won’t become coherent just because they appear in the same paragraph; they must contribute to the same line of reasoning.

Students may keep the guiding question as their central focus or replace it with another significant technical or formal point of entry. Either approach still requires a specific lens. Promising broadly to discuss “literary devices” isn’t enough.

### Language and analytical register

Criterion D assesses clarity, variety, accuracy and the appropriateness of register and style. **Register** “refers, in this context, to the candidate's use of elements such as vocabulary, tone, sentence structure and terminology appropriate to the analysis.” Analytical language, in other words, should be precise without sounding artificially inflated.

Use literary terminology when it identifies a genuine mechanism, but make verbs do the analytical work: a break delays, a rhyme couples, a caesura divides, an image acquires or loses an association. Clear syntax matters. Even a complicated interpretation must be communicated accurately. At the highest level, language is effective, carefully chosen and precise, with sustained control of grammar and sentence construction.

### Readers, contexts and negotiated meaning

Close analysis examines authorial choices, yet readers also help produce meaning. An initial response might register discomfort, attraction or uncertainty. Analysis then tests that reaction against textual evidence and alternative interpretations. Talking with other readers can reveal assumptions and demonstrate why meaning is constructed and negotiated rather than wholly private or fixed.

Poetry grows out of interactions among writerly creativity, literary tradition and cultural or historical context. Language can represent the world while constructing social and cultural identities. Context is useful when it illuminates a choice, such as a modified conventional form, a contested symbol or an exclusion concealed within an apparently collective voice. It shouldn’t turn into a detached biography or history lesson.

The poem’s aesthetic, performative and transformative possibilities also belong in the analysis. Through its arrangement of voice and sound, a poem may make the reader rehearse a rhythm, inhabit a perspective or revise an initial judgment. Literary language can therefore influence readers, while readers open different possibilities within the text.

### Using the learner portfolio

The learner portfolio is not specifically assessed, but the guide identifies it as an important place to build Paper 1 skills. In poetry work, students can use it to:

- record an initial response to a poem encountered for the first time
- formulate different guiding questions and reread the same poem through each lens
- identify less secure skills and track their development
- keep a record of practice across all possible literary forms and judge the relative challenge of each
- compare later analyses with the first attempt in order to monitor progress.

These records work best when they capture change: the initial interpretation, the detail that complicated it and the revised conclusion. This process reflects what close reading actually involves—a movement from response towards an evidence-based interpretation, sharpened through rereading and engagement with other readers.

Drama

English A (Lit)

English A: Literature focuses on the study and analysis of literary works from various cultures, periods, and genres. Students engage with 13 works at higher level or 9 works at standard level, developing their ability to interpret texts critically and appreciate the artistry of literature.

1.4 Poetry

Question 1

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Question 2

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Question 3

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Question 4

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Question 5

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Question 6

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